Tuesday, December 21, 2021

Self-Psychology- Concepts and Principles

 


The psychological study of the self includes a wide range of concepts. This post lists the self-terms in alphabetical order.

I suggest starting with the SCOPES Model of Human Functioning in which the self is the central organizing concept.

Then, read about Self-Concept and Self-Identity

Click on the terms to see more information.

Note, in psychology, terms using the word self and another word are always hyphenated.

 

Self-acceptance

Self-awareness

Self-censorship

Self-deception strategies

Self-defeating prophecy

Self-determination theory

Self-efficacy

Self-enhancement motive

Self-esteem

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Self-handicapping

Self-knowledge

Self-monitoring

Self-perception theory

Self-presentation

Self-protection

Self-reference effect

Self-serving bias

 Related posts

Identity formation

 

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Find tests about the Self in this Psychology Test List.

 

 

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Monday, December 20, 2021

cryptomnesia

 



Cryptomnesia is a memory problem in which people misattribute their thoughts or ideas as new when they are really memories. This can produce inadvertent plagiarism--including plagiarizing their own previously published ideas.

#self-plagiarism #cryptomnesia

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Memory misattributions

 


Memory misattribution can occur when features of different events are bound together in one memory. Also, imagined events or events that were just considered may be remembered as if they actually occurred.

Researchers have demonstrated that when people imagine seeing something or imagine carrying out an action, some report that they actually saw the object or performed the action.

Some older adults had difficulties with details of a similar shape. In one study they confused details of two round shapes-lollipop and magnifying glass.

Misattributions and memory conjunction or binding errors can be the result of problems of retrieval. This has been seen in patients with frontal lobe damage.

In cryptomnesia, people misattribute thoughts or ideas as new when they are really memories. This can produce inadvertent plagiarism--including plagiarizing their own previously published ideas.

Déjà vu also appears to be a problem of misattribution when features of a new experience seem familiar as if we have been to a new place or had the new experience before.

See Schacter, 2021

Resource

Schachter, D. L. (2021). The seven sins of memory: How the mind forgets and remembers. Updated Edition. New York: Mariner. Link to Book

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memory binding

 Memory binding is the association of event features into one memory. Failures can result in misattributions when features of different events are bound together.

The hippocampus appears to important to memory binding. Disruptions can produce conjunction errors.

Resource

Schachter, D. L. (2021). The seven sins of memory: How the mind forgets and remembers. Updated Edition. New York: Mariner. Link to Book


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Saturday, December 18, 2021

Blocking & Tip of the Tongue Memory Failure



Blocking problems refer to the failure to recall something from memory. Researchers find that blocking on name recall is the most common problem.

Baker/baker paradox

People recall a person's occupation more easily than they recall a person's name. A study using the name Baker  and occupation of baker provides evidence for the difficulty and is known as the Baker/baker paradox.

A case study of a patient named LS revealed severe blocking on people's names following brain damage. The condition seen in others is now called proper-name anomia. The available research in 2021 suggests the problem is in the left cerebral hemisphere--possibly the left temporal lobe.

Tip of the Tongue (TOT)

One common blocking problem is the failure to recall accompanied by a sense that the name of a person or thing is on the "Tip of the Tongue(TOT)." The classic study known to psychology students is Roger Brown and David McNeill (1966). They found that recalling the first letter is the most common "hint" that the name is present in memory but cannot be completely recalled. [As an aside, I recalled the Brown & McNeill association with Tip of the Tongue but I got the date wrong as I found when double checking my reference.]

Some efforts at recall can prolong the blocking of TOTs. In general, TOTs resolve in about a minute.

Stress appears to increase the frequency of TOTs. You may observe this during televised debates.

Resource

Schachter, D. L. (2021). The seven sins of memory: How the mind forgets and remembers. Updated Edition. New York: Mariner. Link to Book

Key terms

#blocking #tiptofthetongue

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Thursday, December 16, 2021

mind wandering and memory

Mind wandering is a common phenomenon that interferes with remembering information when reading or from a lecture. People commonly refer to the experience as "zoning out."

The frequency of mind wandering increases with the length of a presentation. Researchers have found that stopping a presentation and asking a question significantly reduces mind wandering.


change blindness

 Change blindness is the failure to detect a change in a situation.

A classic study is one by Daniel Simons and Chris Chabris. They asked participants to track the passes of a ball. About half the viewers of the video did not notice the gorilla in the room. Thus, by focusing on the ball, the people were blind to a significant change in the scene.

This concept has also been called inattentional blindness


Reference

Simons, D. J., & Chabris, C. F. (1999). Gorillas in our midst: Sustained inattentional blindness for dynamic events. Perception, 28(9), 1059-1074.

See the gorilla video on YouTube


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absent mindedness

 In psychology, absent mindedness refers to impaired attention leading to a failure to recall information. The information may not have been encoded or it may be in memory but unavailable for retrieval. A key to understanding absent mindedness appears to be a problem with adequate attention important to adequate encoding of information.

Distractions can lead to "divided attention," which interferes with encoding.

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cognitive offloading

 Cognitive offloading refers to the process of relying on external reminders such as electronic devices to retrieve memories.


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Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory HSAM

 

HSAM studies have been traced to a case study in 2006 of AJ--a woman who had remarkable recall of life events. Following the study of other adults with a similar extraordinary memory, the term HSAM has been used (Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory).

MRI studies found nine differences in brain regions between HSAM and Control participants according to a summary by Schachter 2021

APA Reference

Schachter, D. L. (2021). The seven sins of memory: How the mind forgets and remembers. Updated Edition. New York: Mariner. Link to Book

A 60 minutes program included an interview by Lesley Stahl with a person who has HSAM.


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Monday, December 6, 2021

working memory, phonological loop

 Working memory is a short-term cognitive store of information. Following the perception of information, that information is stored often for just a few seconds until it is either lost or stored in long-term memory for either episodic or semantic information.

One subsystem of working memory is called the phonological loop studied by Alan Baddeley. This loop allows for the transmission of speech, words, and digits from perception to long-term memory or the retrieval of the same data.



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semantic memory

 Semantic memory is one of two types of long-term memory, which stores general knowledge and facts like the first president of the United States. The other type is episodic memory.




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episodic memory

 Episodic memory is one of two types of long-term memory, which stores personal experiences linked to particular times and places. The other type is semantic memory.



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benign senescent forgetfulness

 Benign senescent forgetfulness refers to typical declines in memory associated with aging.

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Mental Reserve or Cognitive Reserve

 


Mental reserve is the capacity of brains to enable people to function adequately despite disease or damage to the brain.

Because brain damage often impairs memory important to solving problems, mental reserve, cognitive reserve, or brain reserve are terms used in conjunction with some memory studies.

The term cognitive reserve has been used since the 1980s when autopsies revealed signs of Alzheimer's disease in people who functioned adequately. It appeared they had sufficient mental or cognitive reserve capacity to compensate for the disease.

Studies that investigate cognitive reserve are generally addressing the Cognitive Reserve Hypothesis. The Cognitive Reserve Hypothesis states that intellectual enrichment produces cognitive efficiency, which results in Cognitive Reserve as a protection against expected disease-linked cognitive impairment.

Cognitive reserve is an inferred concept. That is, when people do better than expected following brain trauma or disease, clinicians infer that the better performance is due to cognitive reserve (Schwartz et al., 2016).

Carolyn Schwartz and her team (2016) suggest cognitive reserve should be a broader or multidimensional concept than the typical focus on cognitive skills. They include physical, socio-emotional, and spiritual components.

Brains affected by disease require extra effort to function as well as before the disease. Diseases that can affect the brain include Parkinson's, multiple sclerosis, stroke, and forms of dementia.

High levels of cognitive reserve are associated with people who have high levels of education and occupational status as well as high participation in nonwork activities. Cognitive activity is generally considered to be a helpful factor in high levels of cognitive reserve.

An extensive study conducted by Isobel Evans and her team (2018) explored the role of social activity and cognitive reserve. Following is part of their conclusion:

After controlling for age, gender, education, and physically limiting health conditions, social isolation was associated with cognitive function at baseline and two year follow-up. Cognitive reserve moderated this association longitudinally. Findings suggest that maintaining a socially active lifestyle in later life may enhance cognitive reserve and benefit cognitive function. (Abstract)

Scientists who study cognitive reserve include neuropsychologists, neurologists, neuroscientists and behavioral neurologists.


References

Evans, IEM, Llewellyn, DJ, Matthews FE, Woods, RT, Brayne, C, Clare, L, et al. (2018) Social isolation, cognitive reserve, and cognition in healthy older people. PLoS ONE 13(8): e0201008.https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0201008

Schwartz, C.E., Rapkin, B.D. & Healy, B.C. Reserve and Reserve-building activities research: key challenges and future directions. BMC Neurosci 17, 62 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12868-016-0297-0

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Memory -Forgetting and Transience


Psychologist  Daniel L. Schachter (2021) describes transience memory as those memories that are lost due to the passage of time. The memory appears to get weaker.

The problem of transience is what we may often call forgetting. It is a typical problem. 

In the history of psychology, early work on forgetting as a function of time was studied experimentally by German philosopher, Hermann Ebbinghaus who learned nonsense syllables then plotted his recall over time. A month after learning a list he had forgotten 75% but he had lost 60% after 9 hours! Thus, after the initial loss, the rate of loss declined. Since then, many psychological scientists have studied memory and forgetting in many ways both in labs and field (real life) settings.

Memory for words can distinguish between older adults with and without Alzheimer's disease.

An important series of studies by the neurologist Herman Buschke and his colleagues shows that levels of forgetting in a word memory test can distinguish between healthy older individuals and those with Alzheimer’s disease. (Schacter, p. 42)


People recall and forget different details of shared events. 

Some people have better memories than others. 

It's not surprising to find disagreements

 when memories are shared during the holidays.



APA Reference

Schachter, D. L. (2021). The seven sins of memory: How the mind forgets and remembers. Updated Edition. New York: Mariner. Link to Book

Key terms

#forgetting #memoryloss #memoryproblems #Alzheimer's

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