Updated 2025 August 4
SCOPES is a comprehensive biopsychosocial framework of human flourishing that integrates data from six key domains of functioning frequently examined in psychological research and clinical settings (Sutton, 2016, 2021a, 2021b). This model delivers a systematic approach for categorizing information about individuals. It enables clinicians to organize patient data efficiently, thus supporting the development of treatment plans that address multiple facets related to primary concerns or diagnoses. Researchers may also employ the SCOPES model to structure assessment data—such as test results or questionnaire responses—that pertain to one or more of these domains.
Cite this post (APA)
Sutton, G. W. (2025, August 4). SCOPES model of human functioning. Psychology concepts and theories. https://suttonpsychology.blogspot.com/2021/07/scopes-model-of-human-functioning.html
Cite this book reference for the SCOPES Model.
Sutton, G. W. (2021). Creating surveys: Second Edition| How to create and administer surveys, evaluate workshops & seminars, interpret and present results. Sunflower.
Available from AMAZON Paperback ISBN-13: 9798712780327 website
This post provides an overview of the SCOPES model, followed by a detailed description of each domain and its relevance to clinical practice.
Outlined below is a concise description of the six domains within the SCOPES model. This section will be further developed with illustrative examples.
The Common Psychological Core = CEO
Cognitive Domain (C)
This domain pertains to mental functions such as attention, memory encoding and retrieval, processing speed, reasoning, and decision-making. Intelligence and skills like reading and mathematics are cognitive functions. Dysfunctions may manifest as cognitive distortions, intrusive thoughts, or inflexible cognitive frameworks.
Emotional Domain (E)
The emotional domain encompasses affective states, including mood, discrete emotions (e.g., anger, sadness, joy), and emotion regulation capabilities. Clinically, affect dysregulation may present as mood instability, emotional blunting, or heightened emotional responsiveness.
Behavioral Domain (O: Observable Behavior Patterns/Personality)
This domain addresses observable behavioral patterns often recognized as personality traits such as extroversion or humility. Smaller patterns may be called subtraits; for example, dutiful and competent are subtraits or facets of the broader Big Five trait of conscientiousness. Other patterns are habits like checking the weather or drinking coffee. Some behavior patterns are maladaptive or pathological such as lying, stealing, bullying, and so forth.
The Biopsychological Foundation
Physiology (P)
The physiological domain comprises biological processes that are influenced by psychological states, including autonomic arousal (e.g., heart rate, skin conductance), neuroendocrine activity (e.g., cortisol, testosterone), sleep architecture, appetite, and sexual functioning.
The Social Space and Time Context of Functioning
Social Domain (Final S)
This domain addresses the interpersonal and environmental contexts shaping individual development, encompassing immediate relationships (family, peers), broader community networks, cultural norms, and temporal factors related to life stages.
Self: The Central Organizing Function (Primary S)
The self domain integrates the other five domains into a cohesive sense of identity, self-esteem, self-efficacy, personal values, and existential meaning. People have multiple identities such as spouse or partner, parent, child, religious or spiritual, political, and gender. Disturbances within this domain may include fragmented self-concept, diminished self-worth, or loss of purpose.
Clinical Application: A Brief Example
Consider major depressive disorder. Using SCOPES, a clinician might observe:
Cognitive: persistent negative appraisals of self and future; problems with sustained attention
Emotional: prolonged sadness, anhedonia
Behavioral: withdrawal from social and recreational activities
Physiological: hypersomnia or insomnia, appetite disturbance
Social: strained relationships and reduced interactions
Self: diminished self-worth and disrupted identity
An integrative treatment plan could combine cognitive-behavioral therapy, behavioral activation, nutritional counseling, social support enhancement, and interventions to rebuild a coherent self-narrative.
We all function in a social context characterized by people, places, and time. Within our social spaces, relationships are often critical to understanding who we are and how we function at home, school, work, or in the community. My thinking about our social space was influenced by Kurt Lewin, whose field theory proposed that behavior was a function of a person and their environment (Burnes & Cooke, 2013). Psychology students learn about the ABCs: affect, behavior, and cognition. The three terms represent a core of individual functioning within social space. Researchers continue to explore the interrelationships among the three core variables (e.g., Farley & Stasson, 2003) and relationships to other variables, such as attitudes toward groups (e.g., Jackson et al., 1996), and links to personality (e.g., Wilt & Revelle, 2015). Behavioral health research continues to identify interactions between physical well-being and other aspects of functioning. This interaction, sometimes referred to as biopsychology, biosociology, or biopsychosocial factors, is not always easy to discern (Miller, 1996). An example of the importance of biopsychosocial factors influencing thoughts, feelings, and behavior may be seen in the movement by psychologists to gain prescription privileges (Antonuccio et al., 2003). Finally, the self represents a sense of who we are. Our self-concept organizes those aspects of ourselves representing our identities. We may have many identities but a few usually dominate our social contexts. A professor may only see people as students and be unaware of their other identities such as spouse, employee, and athlete. In addition, the student may draw heavily on their ethnic group, faith tradition, and political party affiliation for important aspects of their self-identity. Some students may clarify their sex or gender identity as LGBTQ+. Several of these identities are important to the student’s functioning in various contexts but may not always be evident in the classroom.
The self represents only that part of our functioning, which is present in our awareness. When we are focused on some tasks, we are not always aware of other thoughts, feelings, or things going on in our environment. When we move through our social spaces in a day or other timeframe, we become more aware of what is happening in other dimensions of our being. Consider how our thoughts, feelings, behavior patterns, and even our physiology might change in an online meeting with family members, during a work break with a coworker, at a sports event with friends, in religious services, or when waiting for medical services at a clinic.
I have mentioned spirituality because it is often omitted as a factor in research but is now being addressed in a proliferation of psychological measures (e.g., Sutton, 2023). Spirituality is a dimension of life that has gained recognition for its importance to well-being. Assessing spirituality is becoming more common when people seek medical and psychological treatment (D’Souza, 2007). Research supports the view of American Philosopher, Martha Nussbaum that “Religion is central to people’s sense of themselves (2012, p. 102).”
Cognition includes visual imagery as well as thoughts we identify as opinions and beliefs. Strongly held beliefs may be combined with emotions and form attitudes, which are predispositions to behave in a certain way. Many surveys deal with what people think, so I will expand this cognition subsection to include subcategories.
Opinions. Opinions represent judgments about a particular event or activity. Opinions are not as strong as beliefs. Think of items that answer the question, “What do people think about___?” Opinion statements could be presented as items to be rated from strongly agree to strongly disagree.
Beliefs. Beliefs are important thoughts people hold as true about something. Beliefs are stronger than opinions and less likely to change than opinions. Think of items that answer the question, “What do people believe about ___?” Belief statements can also be presented as items to be rated from strongly agree to strongly disagree.
Attitudes. Attitudes involve thoughts and feelings about acting in a specific way toward an event, activity, or group. An attitude is a predisposition to act. Think of items that answer the question, “What is their attitude toward ___?” We want to detect a tendency to act based on some combination of thoughts and feelings. Statements beginning with the pronoun I could be presented as attitude items to be rated from strongly agree to strongly disagree.
Knowledge. Knowledge consists of facts, concepts, and principles that are generally held to be true by experts in a particular field. Clearly, people can dispute facts, define concepts in different ways, and argue about the applicability of certain principles. Think of items that answer the question, “What do people know about ___?” We could be more precise and ask what facts, concepts, or principles people know.
Facts, concepts, and principles are components of knowledge. Many school tests focus on knowledge of facts, such as who were the founders of a nation or a religion. We can ask for factual knowledge about local laws and organizational policies. And we can ask about facts relevant to knowledge taught in a workshop or other educational program. Facts are simple units of information that most, if not all, experts agree are true.
Concepts are ideas. Concepts are usually explained by definitions along with lists of critical features. Concepts are sometimes taught by pointing to examples and nonexamples. We can learn what inspirational leadership is by seeing examples of such leaders in action contrasted with other types of leadership styles. We could also benefit from someone pointing to the features that are unique to inspirational leadership.
The concepts Atheist, Christian, Hindu, Jew, Muslim, are defined in different ways. We can ask a simple question about spiritual identity and provide a common list of religious affiliations. We can be more specific to include subgroups of people with identified belief sets, such as Catholic or Methodist. We can attempt to understand how people identify specific aspects of spirituality by asking about their beliefs; for example, we can ask about beliefs in an afterlife or their moral stance on abortion or capital punishment.
Principles are statements about relationships, which can involve two or more concepts. An example of a simple principle is “round things roll.” To understand the principle, we need to understand the concept round and the concept roll. The teaching, love your neighbor as yourself (Mark 12:31) includes the concepts of love, neighbor, and self and states the relationship between neighbor and self. As you are likely aware, people disagree about the attributes of the concept love and what it means to love as yourself.
Observable behavior patterns are personality traits that can be identified by other persons. Personality traits are those mostly stable patterns of behavior we use to describe ourselves and others. Some common personality traits known as The Big Five include openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Understanding people includes an understanding of their behavior patterns or personality traits and the link to thoughts, feelings, spirituality, health, and socialization. Personality traits are important to all of life’s relationships.
Some behavior patterns or traits result in conflicts at work, in community organizations, and in the home. You are probably familiar with terms for some of the problematic behavior patterns, such as narcissism and psychopathy. Although these terms make headlines when people with such traits do harm, other personality traits are equally important. For example, Brent Roberts and his colleagues (2007) wrote The Power of Personality, in which they found evidence supporting the role of personality traits as predictors of such life events as occupational level, divorce, and mortality.
_____
Extroversion--An example of a widely recognized complex pattern of behavior also known as a personality trait.
Think of people you know at a party or social gathering. It’s usually easy to tell those with extroverted behavior from those who are much more introverted.
Social Engagement
• Talkative and expressive: Extroverts often enjoy conversation and may speak more than they listen.
• Comfortable in groups: They tend to feel at ease in social settings, whether with friends, colleagues, or strangers.
• Initiates interaction: They’re likely to start conversations, introduce themselves, or organize social events.
Energy and Stimulation
• Energized by others: Being around people boosts their mood and motivation.
• Seeks novelty: Extroverts often enjoy new experiences, environments, and challenges.
• Prefers active environments: They may choose lively places like parties, concerts, or bustling cafes over quiet solitude.
Cognitive and Emotional Style
• Processes externally: They often think out loud and may make decisions through discussion rather than introspection.
• Emotionally expressive: Their feelings are usually visible and shared openly.
• Quick to respond: Extroverts may react rapidly in conversations or situations, sometimes before fully reflecting.
_____
P PHYSIOLOGY / BIOPSYCHOLOGY (Health and Biological Functioning)
We may not notice the effects of our health on our well-being until we feel ill, experience pain, or receive a scary diagnosis. Sometimes a person’s health is the focus of a survey, and sometimes it is related to other questions we are asking. Our physical health is a factor related to other dimensions of functioning.
Biopsychology, also known as behavioral neuroscience, is the interdisciplinary study of how biological processes—particularly those within the brain and nervous system—influence cognition, emotion, and behavior. This field investigates the neural substrates of mental functions, emphasizing the role of neurotransmitters, brain structures, and hormonal systems in shaping psychological phenomena (Cherry, 2023). Cognitive processes such as attention, memory, and decision-making are linked to activity in specific brain regions, including the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, while emotional regulation is closely tied to the limbic system, especially the amygdala and hypothalamus (McLeod, 2023). Behavioral expressions, both adaptive and maladaptive, are understood through the lens of brain-behavior relationships, which explore how neural circuits and physiological mechanisms give rise to observable actions and psychological traits. Biopsychology also contributes to the understanding of mental health conditions, such as mood disorders and anxiety, by examining the dysregulation of neurochemical systems. Through its integration of neuroscience and psychological theory, biopsychology provides a foundational framework for exploring how biological systems interact with environmental and experiential factors to produce complex human functioning.
E Emotions (Feelings and moods)
People feel a lot of things. And the words for emotions vary considerably. Researchers disagree about core emotions, but there is agreement that people evaluate situations differently, which has an effect on their emotional responses. Also, emotions are often linked to thoughts in a way that drives behavioral action to satisfy needs. Whatever core emotions exist, there are some linked to pleasant mental states such as happiness and joy. Other emotions linked to unpleasant states include anger, anxiety and fear, sadness or unhappiness, and disgust. To read more about emotions, see Emotion by Annett Schirmer (2015). Understanding people includes an understanding of their emotions and the link between emotions, thoughts, behavior patterns, spirituality, health, and socialization.
It’s no secret that people are social beings, yet some speak about human behavior as if individuals have no context. As mentioned previously, Lewin studied people in their social context, which he referred to as lifespace. Like other researchers (e.g., Burnes & Cooke, 2013), I consider Lewin’s core concepts still relevant to understanding how people behave individually as well as in groups and organizations (Sutton, 2016, 2020).
In place of the term lifespace, I use the term social context. Within social context I include people, places, animals, and objects that influence the other five aspects of functioning. People report different feelings and thoughts, including spiritual experiences, when alone on a mountain trail compared to making small talk at an office party, or attending religious services. They will respond differently if they have a headache or recently lost a family member. In addition to these social settings, there is a time component. Each of us experiences a different timeline. We may share similar broad cultural timelines related to floods and wars. Also, we share similar family timelines related to birthday parties and marriage celebrations. But we also have unique timelines linked to personal achievements, relationships, and meaningful life experiences.
Social context includes that critical aspect of life, our relationships. For the most part, people are raised by one or more parents or adult caregivers. Sometimes our relatives are also counted as friends. In addition to family, we have friends throughout life, and some of us have had friends since childhood. Most of us also have romantic relationships. And most people marry at least once. We also have friendships linked to social organizations such as school, work, and places of worship. Relationships are marked by different levels of influence and commitment. We both influence others and are influenced by others.
Social context can be partially identified by various social markers commonly called demographics. These items on surveys ask about age, sex, gender, occupation, educational level, military status, relationship status, residence, religious affiliation, political affiliation, hobbies, and so forth. Understanding people includes an understanding of their social context.
S SELF (An Organizing Construct)
Whatever the self is, we function as if we have an internal organizing capacity. We cope with life events, and we act in the real world to achieve our goals. Consider the relationship among the components of the four COPE dimensions. Our physical status provides the biological status necessary for life to one degree or another, we have physical strengths and weaknesses that factor in to how we actually function. In addition to our biological substrate, we process thoughts and feelings. Thoughts alone won’t drive us to act but when energized by feelings, we experience a motivational state—a state of readiness to act, which is where the O (observable behavior) factor fits in.
At a personal level, our self-awareness processes information about our physiological state, our thoughts or cognitions, and our feelings, which can lead to observable behavior. So much of our behavior is routine so we can meaningfully talk about personality traits, which are relatively durable behavior patterns. Of course, our person factors (SCOPE) operate within a larger social context. Hence, social factors make a difference in how we ultimately function.
In psychological literature, the term self refers to the organized, dynamic system of beliefs, emotions, and cognitive representations that individuals hold about themselves, encompassing multiple dimensions including self-identity, self-concept, self-esteem, and self-efficacy. Self-identity denotes the sense of continuity and uniqueness that individuals experience across time and contexts, often shaped by social roles, cultural affiliations, and personal narratives. Self-concept refers to the cognitive schema individuals use to define and evaluate themselves, including attributes, roles, and competencies, and is influenced by both internal reflection and external feedback (Markus & Wurf, 1987). Self-esteem, a critical affective component of the self, reflects the evaluative judgment individuals make about their own worth and value, which can fluctuate based on experiences, relationships, and perceived successes or failures (Rosenberg, 1979). Self-efficacy, introduced by Bandura (1977), refers to individuals’ beliefs in their capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance outcomes, influencing motivation, resilience, and goal attainment. Together, these facets of the self contribute to psychological functioning, motivation, and interpersonal behavior, forming a foundational construct in developmental, social, and clinical psychology.
Before leaving the self, let’s look at some of the dimensions of self that have been studied by behavioral scientists.
Self-identities exist in a network and vary in degree of saliency in response to a social context. A psychologist providing psychotherapy may get word that their child has been taken to a hospital. The event makes the parent role salient and temporarily sets aside their career identity.
Spiritual and religious identities. Most people are religious or spiritual. For many, their spirituality is a highly important aspect of who they are. Thus, we see people clarifying their religious or spiritual identity in social media posts and by the clothes and jewelry they wear.
People whose spirituality is connected with others in shared experiences such as in a congregation participate in an identity dynamic whereby the congregation as a spiritual social group interacts with the individual to shape identity. Beliefs, spiritual practices like prayer and scripture reading, annual celebratory events, and communication by leaders (e.g., sermons, newsletters) all influence individual member’s opinions, beliefs, values, emotions, behavior patterns, and so forth.
Race and ethnic identities are also very important to functioning in many cultures. Skin color, physical appearance, language and accent are some of the ways society identifies people as part of a particular group labeled as race or ethnicity. As with spirituality, group leaders and group members interact to define a sense of identity or what it means to belong to a racial or ethnic group and how that group should interact with other groups in society. Racial and ethnic identities can be highly important in multicultural societies where identity may be a factor in employment and social benefits. Sometimes people from a multiracial or multiethnic heritage do not fit neatly into specific groups thus, allow for respondents to identify mixed ethnic and racial identities.
Gender Identity is a recent topic with an expanding literature. The terminology has changed rapidly as scientists and clinicians listened to peoples’ experiences about ways to understand gender identity and how people with different gender identities interact with others, which includes sexual orientation. Traditional views and older studies identified people by sex as male or female. When the focus was on social roles, the language changed to men and women or boys and girls. In recent decades, researchers have expanded the range of gender identity by including terms linked to LGBTQ+ or allowing participants to enter their own term.
Identity theory considers how groups and people interact in a dynamic way shaping the self and the group. An example of this dynamic relationship can be seen in the interaction of political and religious identities influencing morality (see for example, Sutton et al., 2019).
Self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is the perception that a person has the capacity to act in a way to achieve a desired goal. In 1977, Albert Bandura of Stanford University wrote an extensive article on the theory of self-efficacy. He proposed that our perceptions of self-efficacy come from four sources: “performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states (p. 191).” Self-efficacy scales are available for researchers.
Self-esteem. Self-esteem is the value people place on themselves. We learn our value in various social contexts. We are better at somethings than at other things. People learn what society values based on salaries and respectful communication. Within a profession, members are esteemed differently based on their specialties, publications, and media presence. Self-esteem appears to influence performance in various life tasks. There are several survey measures of self-esteem.
Self-awareness. Self-awareness refers to our awareness of various dimensions of ourselves. The focus of our awareness varies throughout a day. When highly focused on some activity, we ignore other aspects of our functioning. For example, some of us can ignore pain when we are busily engaged in the pursuit of some goal.
Note that psychological scientists have not been consistent in the way they use terms like self and self-concept. This lack of consistency is why I recommend thinking of the self and self-concept as equivalent terms. In addition, the terms self and self-concept have been criticized for being vague or as philosophers say, they are “fuzzy concepts.” Regardless of the disagreements, there is a large body of research about self-concepts, self-identities and related terms and there is some evidence that aspects of our self-concepts like identity and efficacy influence behavior.
In this section, I list some examples of tests and questionnaires that measure aspects of each of the six SCOPES domains. These measures may supplement information available by observation and interviews. In some cases, I provide links to other posts where you can find more information about the tests or questionnaires.
Self-Efficacy Scale (General) >> SES
Tests of intelligence
Tests of achievement
Tests of language and verbal skills
Tests of creativity
Tests of memory
Mental status exams
Tests of motor functioning e.g., grip strength, finger tapping
Tests of brain functioning e.g., MRI, EEG
Various lab tests (e.g., blood, urine) detecting factors affecting the other domains
Tests of stress that include biopsychological symptoms
Tests of balance as we learn to walk after injuring a leg or hip
Questionnaires about sexual functioning
Questionnaires about alcohol and other drugs
Questionnaires about sleep, diet, and other health habits affecting other domains
Questions asking us to rate our level of pain on a 0 to 10 scale
Anger Scales >> ANGER
Depression Anxiety Stress Scales >> DASS-21
Positive and Negative Affect Schedule >> PANAS
Reference for using scales in research:
Buy Creating Surveys on
Reference for clinicians and students on understanding assessment
Buy Applied Statistics for Counselors
NOTICE:
The information about scales and measures is provided for clinicians and researchers based on professional publications. The links to authors, materials, and references can change. You may be able to locate details by contacting the main author of the original article or another author on the article list.
Post Author
Baddeley A. (2000). The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory?. Trends in cognitive sciences, 4(11), 417–423. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1364-6613(00)01538-2
Bandura, A (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change. Psychological Review. 84 (2): 191–215.
Burnes, B., & Cooke, B. (2013). Kurt Lewin's field theory: A review and re‐evaluation. International Journal of Management Reviews, 15, 408-425.
D'Souza, R. (2007). The importance of spirituality in medicine and its application to clinical practice. Medical Journal of Australia, 186, S57.
Farley, S. D. & Stasson, M. F. (2003). Relative influences of affect and cognition on behavior: Are feelings or beliefs more related to blood donation intentions? Experimental Psychology, 50, 53-62. doi: 10.1027//1618-3169.50.1.55
Jackson, L. A., Hodge, C. N., Gerard, D. A., Ingram, J. M., Ervin, K.S., & Sheppard, L.A. (1996). Cognition, affect, and behavior in the prediction of group attitudes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 306-316. doi:10.1177/0146167296223009
Markus, H., & Wurf, E. (1987). The dynamic self-concept: A social psychological perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 38(1), 299–337. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.38.020187.001503
Miller, G. A. (1996). How we think about cognition, emotion, and biology in psychopathology. Psychophysiology, 33, 615–628. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1996.tb02356.x
Nussbaum M. C. (2012). The new religious intolerance: overcoming the politics of fear in an anxious age. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press.
Posner, M. I., & Petersen, S. E. (1990). The attention system of the human brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 13, 25–42. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ne.13.030190.000325
Roberts, B. W., Kuncel, N. R., Shiner, R., Caspi, A., & Goldberg, L. R. (2007). The power of personality. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2, 313-345.
Schirmer, A. (2015). Emotion. Sage
Sutton, G. W. (2023). Assessing spirituality & religiosity: Beliefs, practices, values, & experiences. Sunflower.
Sutton, G. W. (2021a). Counseling and psychotherapy with Pentecostal and Charismatic Christians: Culture & Research | Assessment & Practice. Sunflower. ISBN-13 : 979-8681036524
Sutton, G. W. (2021b). Creating surveys: Second Edition: How to create and administer surveys, evaluate workshops & seminars, interpret and present results. Sunflower. Paperback ISBN-13: 9798712780327
Sutton, G. W. (2016). A house divided: Sexuality, morality, and Christian cultures. Pickwick. ISBN: 9781498224888.
Sutton, G. W., Kelly, H. L., & Huver, M. (2019). Political identities, religious identity, and the pattern of moral foundations among conservative Christians. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 48, pp. 169-187. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091647119878675
Wilt, J., & Revelle, W. (2015). Affect, behavior, cognition, and desire in the Big Five: An analysis of item content and structure. European Journal of Personality, 29, 478–497. http://doi.org/10.1002/per.2002
Post updated 4 August 2025
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