Viktor Frankl: Concepts and Theories

Viktor Frankly Museum, Vienna, Austria

 Viktor Frankl: Concepts and Theories

I first read Frankl's book as an undergraduate in psychology. His observations led to practical interventions in psychotherapy. In Vienna, I visited his place of work now preserved as a museum as pictured above.

Viktor Emil Frankl (March 26, 1905 – September 2, 1997) was an Austrian psychiatrist, neurologist, and Holocaust survivor who founded Logotherapy, a form of psychotherapy that emphasizes the search for meaning in life as the primary motivational force for humans. 

Will to Meaning: Frankl believed that the primary motivational force in humans is the pursuit of meaning in life, rather than pleasure (as proposed by Freud) or power (as proposed by Adler).

Meaning of Life: According to Frankl, life has meaning under all circumstances, even the most miserable ones. This meaning can be found through work, love, suffering, and by adopting a particular attitude towards unavoidable suffering.

Freedom of Will: Frankl emphasized that humans have the freedom to choose their attitudes and responses to life's challenges, even when they cannot change their circumstances.

Existential Vacuum: This concept refers to a sense of emptiness and lack of purpose that individuals may experience, which can lead to feelings of meaninglessness and existential frustration.

Paradoxical Intention: A technique used in Logotherapy where individuals are encouraged to confront their fears by intentionally exaggerating them, thereby reducing their anxiety.

Dereflection: This technique involves shifting focus away from oneself and towards others or external tasks, helping individuals overcome self-centered worries and anxieties.

Tragic Triad: Frankl identified three sources of existential frustration: unavoidable suffering, unavoidable guilt, and irremediable loss. He believed that finding meaning in these experiences is crucial for psychological well-being.

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About Viktor Frankl

Born in Vienna, Frankl studied psychology and philosophy, and corresponded with Sigmund Freud as a teenager. He earned his medical degree from the University of Vienna in 19301.

During World War II, Frankl was imprisoned in several Nazi concentration camps, including Theresienstadt, Auschwitz, and Bergen-Belsen, where he lost his parents and wife. His experiences in the camps deeply influenced his psychological theories, particularly the idea that finding meaning in life is essential for mental health1.

After the war, Frankl returned to Vienna and became head of the neurological department at the General Polyclinic Hospital. He published numerous books, including his best-known work, Man's Search for Meaning (1946), which details his experiences in the concentration camps and outlines the principles of Logotherapy.

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Man's Search for Meaning
Now a rare edition

Publications and Editions

Frankl, V. E. (1946). Man's search for meaning. Beacon Press.  [SEE SUMMARY]

Frankl, V. E. (1955). The doctor and the soul. Verlag Herder.

Frankl, V. E. (1967). Psychotherapy and existentialism. Simon & Schuster.

Frankl, V. E. (1969). The will to meaning: Foundations and applications of logotherapy. Plume.

Frankl, V. E. (1974). Man's search for ultimate meaning. Plume.

Frankl, V. E. (1978). The unheard cry for meaning. Simon & Schuster. [AMAZON]

Frankl, V. E. (1988). The will to meaning: Foundations and applications of logotherapy. Plume.

Frankl, V. E. (1995). Recollections: An autobiography. Basic Books.

Frankl, V. E. (2000). Viktor Frankl recollections: An autobiography. Basic Books. AMAZON

Frankl, V. E. (2006). Man's search for meaning. Beacon Press. [SEE SUMMARY]

Frankl, V. E. (2017). Man's search for meaning: A young adult edition. Beacon Press. [AMAZON]

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Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

See Geoffrey Sutton’s books on   AMAZON       or  GOOGLE STORE

Follow on    FACEBOOK   Geoff W. Sutton    

   X  @Geoff.W.Sutton    

You can read many published articles at no charge:

  Academia   Geoff W Sutton     ResearchGate   Geoffrey W Sutton 

 

Dr. Sutton’s posts are for educational purposes only. See a licensed mental health provider for diagnoses, treatment, and consultation. 

Maslow and the Psychology of Needs

Maslow's Need Hierarchy
Created 2024 by Geoffrey W. Sutton

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. 

From the bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are:

Physiological Needs: These are biological requirements for human survival, such as air, food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, and sleep.

Safety Needs: These include personal security, financial security, health and well-being, and safety nets against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts.

Love and Belongingness Needs: These involve emotional relationships including friendships, romantic attachments, and family.

Esteem Needs: These include self-esteem, recognition, status, and respect from others.

Self-Actualization Needs: This is the realization of personal potential, self-fulfillment, and seeking personal growth and peak experiences.

Maslow believed that these needs must be satisfied in order, starting from the bottom and working up.

Criticisms

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs has been widely influential, but it has also faced several criticisms over the years:

Lack of Empirical Evidence: Critics argue that Maslow's theory lacks rigorous scientific research and empirical evidence to support its claims. The theory is often considered more descriptive than predictive.

Cultural Bias: The hierarchy is seen as reflecting Western values and may not be universally applicable across different cultures. Some cultures may prioritize social needs over individual needs, for example.

Over-Simplification: The theory is criticized for oversimplifying human motivation and behavior by categorizing needs into a rigid hierarchy. In reality, human needs and motivations are more complex and fluid.

Sequential Assumption: Maslow's original theory suggests that lower-level needs must be fully satisfied before higher-level needs can be pursued. However, research has shown that these needs can overlap and be pursued simultaneously.

Neglect of Relationships: Some critics argue that the hierarchy undervalues the importance of relationships and social connections, which can be fundamental to human well-being at any stage.

Unscientific Methods: Maslow's conclusions were drawn from personal observations and biographical analyses, which are considered less reliable and unscientific by modern standards.

About Maslow

Abraham Harold Maslow (April 1, 1908 – June 8, 1970) was an American psychologist best known for creating Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a theory of psychological health predicated on fulfilling innate human needs in priority, culminating in self-actualization. Born in Brooklyn, New York, to Jewish immigrant parents from Russia, Maslow spent much of his childhood in libraries, developing a love for reading and learning.

He initially studied law at the City College of New York but switched to psychology at the University of Wisconsin, where he earned his bachelor's, master's, and doctorate degrees. Maslow taught at Brooklyn College and later became a professor at Brandeis University, where he remained until 19693.

Maslow's humanistic approach to psychology emphasized the positive qualities in people and their potential for growth. His major works include Motivation and Personality (1954) and Toward a Psychology of Being (1962). He also introduced the concept of peak experiences, moments of highest happiness and fulfillment.

REFERENCES

Enright, R. D. (2018). Why Maslow’s self-actualization theory is not quite right. Psychology Today. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-forgiving-life/201805/why-maslows-self-actualization-theory-is-not-quite-right

Geller, L. (1982). The failure of self-actualization theory. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 22(1), 64-72.

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370-396. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346

Maslow, A. H. (1954). Motivation and Personality. Harper & Row.

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

See Geoffrey Sutton’s books on   AMAZON       or  GOOGLE STORE

Follow on    FACEBOOK   Geoff W. Sutton    

   X  @Geoff.W.Sutton    

You can read many published articles at no charge:

  Academia   Geoff W Sutton     ResearchGate   Geoffrey W Sutton 

 

Dr. Sutton’s posts are for educational purposes only. See a licensed mental health provider for diagnoses, treatment, and consultation. 

Sigmund Freud's theory of psychosexual development

Psychosexual Development

Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud's theory of psychosexual development suggests that children pass through a series of stages centered on erogenous zones. 

Each stage plays a crucial role in personality development, and unresolved conflicts can lead to fixation and influence behavior in adulthood. 

Although the theory is not supported by evidence, it is still taught as a part of the history of psychology.

Here are the stages:

Oral Stage (0-1 year):

Erogenous Zone: Mouth

Focus: Sucking, biting, and breastfeeding.

Key Conflict: Weaning from breastfeeding or bottle-feeding.

Outcome: Fixation can result in oral activities in adulthood, such as smoking, overeating, or nail-biting.

Anal Stage (1-3 years):

Erogenous Zone: Bowel and bladder control

Focus: Controlling bladder and bowel movements.

Key Conflict: Toilet training.

Outcome: Fixation can lead to an anal-retentive personality (obsessiveness, perfectionism) or an anal-expulsive personality (messiness, destructiveness).

Phallic Stage (3-6 years):

Erogenous Zone: Genitals

Focus: Discovering differences between males and females.

Key Conflict: Oedipus complex (boys) and Electra complex (girls).

Outcome: Fixation can result in problems with authority and relationships.

Latency Stage (6-puberty):

Erogenous Zone: Dormant sexual feelings

Focus: Developing social skills, hobbies, and interests.

Key Conflict: None, as sexual feelings are suppressed.

Outcome: Successful navigation leads to the development of communication and self-confidence.

Genital Stage (puberty-adulthood):

Erogenous Zone: Maturing sexual interests

Focus: Establishing mature sexual relationships.

Key Conflict: Balancing sexual desires with responsibilities.

Outcome: Successful navigation leads to well-adjusted, healthy adults capable of love and work.

Two Complexes

The Oedipus Complex and the Electra Complex are significant in Freud's theory of psychosexual development. Here's a closer look at both:

Oedipus Complex

Definition: The Oedipus Complex occurs during the phallic stage of psychosexual development (ages 3-6). It involves a child's unconscious sexual desire for the opposite-sex parent and feelings of jealousy and rivalry toward the same-sex parent.

For Boys: Freud theorized that boys experience the Oedipus Complex by developing unconscious desires for their mothers and viewing their fathers as rivals for their mother's attention and affection. This can lead to feelings of hostility and jealousy towards the father.

Resolution: The complex is resolved when the boy begins to identify with his father, internalizing his father's values and norms, which helps in the development of the superego (the moral component of personality).

Electra Complex

Definition: The Electra Complex is the counterpart to the Oedipus Complex for girls and was later developed by Carl Jung. Although not extensively elaborated by Freud, it describes a girl's psychosexual competition with her mother for possession of her father.

For Girls: Freud suggested that girls experience "penis envy," where they desire their fathers and resent their mothers for not providing them with a penis. This desire creates a rivalry with the mother.

Resolution: The complex is resolved when the girl starts to identify with her mother and internalizes her mother's values, which helps in the development of the superego.

Relevance in Modern Psychology

While these complexes are considered foundational in psychoanalytic theory, many aspects have been criticized or revised in contemporary psychology. However, the general idea that early family dynamics and unconscious processes influence personality development remains influential. 

Modern therapy often explores early relationships and conflicts, even if the specifics of Freud's complexes are not emphasized.

Criticisms

Freud's psychosexual stages of development have been subject to numerous specific criticisms over the years. Here are some of the key points of contention:

Overemphasis on Sexuality: Critics argue that Freud's theory places too much emphasis on sexual drives as the primary motivators of human behavior. They believe that many other factors, such as social, cultural, and cognitive influences, play equally significant roles in development (Eagle, 2007).

Unfalsifiability: Freud's theories are often criticized for being unfalsifiable, meaning that they cannot be tested or proven wrong. This lack of empirical evidence makes it difficult to validate his concepts through scientific research (Popper, 1959).

Gender Bias: Freud's theories have been criticized for being gender-biased. Concepts like "penis envy" and the Oedipus complex are seen as reflecting a male-centered perspective and have been challenged by feminist scholars (Chodorow, 1991).

Cultural Bias: Freud developed his theories based on observations of a specific cultural group (Viennese upper-middle-class society). As a result, his theories may not be universally applicable and can be seen as culturally biased (Eagle, 2007).

Deterministic Outlook: Freud's psychosexual stages suggest that early childhood experiences determine adult personality and behavior, leaving little room for change or the influence of later life experiences. Critics argue that this deterministic view oversimplifies human development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).

Methodological Issues: Freud's research methods, including the reliance on case studies and subjective interpretations, have been criticized for lacking scientific rigor. His conclusions were often based on small, non-representative samples (Grünbaum, 1984).

Negative View of Human Nature: Freud's theory is often seen as presenting a pessimistic view of human nature, focusing on internal conflicts and negative impulses rather than positive growth and development (Maslow, 1968).

References

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press.

Chodorow, N. J. (1991). Feminism and psychoanalytic theory. Yale University Press.

Eagle, M. N. (2007). Psychoanalysis and its critics. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 24(1), 10-24. https://doi.org/10.1037/0736-9735.24.1.10

Freud, S. (1905). Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality. In J. Strachey (Ed. & Trans.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 7, pp. 123-243). Hogarth Press.

Freud, S. (1920). Beyond the Pleasure Principle. In J. Strachey (Ed. & Trans.), The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 18, pp. 1-64). Hogarth Press.

Grünbaum, A. (1984). The foundations of psychoanalysis: A philosophical critique. University of California Press.

Maslow, A. H. (1968). Toward a psychology of being. Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Popper, K. (1959). The logic of scientific discovery. Hutchinson & Co.

Related Posts

Id, Ego, Superego & Freud's Personality Theory

Psychology of Defense Mechanisms

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

See Geoffrey Sutton’s books on   AMAZON       or  GOOGLE STORE

Follow on    FACEBOOK   Geoff W. Sutton    

   X  @Geoff.W.Sutton    

You can read many published articles at no charge:

  Academia   Geoff W Sutton     ResearchGate   Geoffrey W Sutton 

 

Dr. Sutton’s posts are for educational purposes only. See a licensed mental health provider for diagnoses, treatment, and consultation. 

Id Ego Superego & Freud's Personality Theory

Freud's Personality Theory

Id, Ego, Superego

Criticisms

References

Sigmund Freud's personality theory is centered on three key components: the id, the ego, and the superego. These elements interact to shape human behavior and personality.

Id: The id is the primal part of the psyche that operates on the pleasure principle. It seeks immediate gratification of basic needs and desires, such as hunger, thirst, and sexual urges. The id is entirely unconscious and contains the instinctual drives.


Ego: The ego functions on the reality principle and serves as the mediator between the id and the external world. It attempts to satisfy the id's desires in a realistic and socially acceptable manner. The ego operates in both the conscious and unconscious mind and employs defense mechanisms to manage conflicts between the id and reality.


Superego: The superego represents internalized societal and moral standards. It develops around the age of five and consists of two components: the conscience and the ego ideal. The conscience punishes the ego through feelings of guilt and shame when it fails to meet moral standards, while the ego ideal rewards the ego with feelings of pride and satisfaction when it upholds these standards.




Freud’s dynamic theory of personality suggests that the id, ego, and superego interact through various defense mechanisms to manage conflicts and reduce anxiety. These mechanisms include repression  (pushing distressing thoughts out of consciousness), projection  (attributing one’s unacceptable thoughts to others), and rationalization  (justifying behaviors with seemingly logical reasons).

Freud elaborates on these mechanisms in The Ego and the Id (1923). In this work, he explores how the ego balances the demands of the id, the superego, and reality, often resulting in psychological tension. This tension is a cornerstone of his theory of psychodynamics.

Moreover, Freud's concept of psychosexual development, which he outlines in Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905), describes how personality develops through a series of stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. Each stage involves different pleasure zones and conflicts that shape an individual's personality.

Criticisms of Freudian Theory

Many writers have criticized Freud's concepts. Following are some general criticisms of his personality theory.

Lack of Empirical Evidence: Many of Freud's concepts, such as the unconscious mind and the Oedipus complex, are difficult to test scientifically. Critics argue that his theories are based on subjective interpretations rather than objective data.

Overemphasis on Sexuality: Freud's theory places a strong emphasis on sexual drives as the primary motivators of human behavior, which some critics believe oversimplifies the complexity of human psychology.

Deterministic View: Freud's theory is often seen as overly deterministic, suggesting that early childhood experiences determine adult personality and behavior, leaving little room for free will or the influence of later life experiences.

Sexism: Freud's views on women, including the concept of "penis envy," have been criticized as sexist and outdated.

Cultural Bias: Freud's theories were developed based on his observations of a specific cultural group (Viennese upper-middle-class society), which may not be universally applicable.

Lack of Cross-Cultural Support: Many of Freud's ideas have not been supported by cross-cultural research, suggesting that his theories may not be universally valid.

Related Posts

Defense Mechanisms

Sigmund Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development

Reference


Freud, S. (1990). The Ego and the Id (The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud) (J. Strachey, Ed.). W.W. Norton & Co. ON AMAZON

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

See Geoffrey Sutton’s books on   AMAZON       or  GOOGLE STORE

Follow on    FACEBOOK   Geoff W. Sutton    

   X  @Geoff.W.Sutton    

You can read many published articles at no charge:

  Academia   Geoff W Sutton     ResearchGate   Geoffrey W Sutton 

 

Dr. Sutton’s posts are for educational purposes only. See a licensed mental health provider for diagnoses, treatment, and consultation. 

Sociocultural Assimilation Hypothesis

 According to the sociocultural assimilation hypothesis, some personality traits elicit the tendency to “swim with the sociocultural tide.” More precisely, people high on those traits should exhibit a given behavior more strongly than they would otherwise do, if that behavior is normative in their culture. By contrast, people high on those traits should exhibit the same behavior less strongly than they would otherwise, if that behavior is non-normative in their culture. Thus, according to the sociocultural assimilation hypothesis some personality traits elicit a motive to behave more normatively. According to the sociocultural contrast hypothesis, some personality traits elicit the tendency to “swim against the sociocultural tide.” More precisely, people high on those traits should exhibit a given behavior more strongly than they would otherwise do, if that behavior is non-normative in their culture. By contrast, people high on those traits should exhibit the same behavior less strongly than they would otherwise do, if that behavior is normative in their culture. Thus, according the sociocultural contrast hypothesis, certain personality traits elicit a motive to behave less normatively.

(p 1666, Entringer et al., 2020)

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

See Geoffrey Sutton’s books on   AMAZON       or  GOOGLE STORE

Follow on    FACEBOOK   Geoff W. Sutton    

   TWITTER  @Geoff.W.Sutton    

You can read many published articles at no charge:

  Academia   Geoff W Sutton     ResearchGate   Geoffrey W Sutton 

 

Dr. Sutton’s posts are for educational purposes only. See a licensed mental health provider for diagnoses, treatment, and consultation.

SCOPES Model of Human Functioning

The SCOPES model organizes information about human functioning in six domains commonly discussed in psychological research and clinical practice. The SCOPES model also helps researchers and clinicians organize tests or questionnaires that measure different dimensions of functioning.

When clinicians organize patient information using the SCOPES model, or a similar holistic model, they may be able to help patients select treatment strategies that address multiple areas related to the primary concern or diagnosis. 

For example, clinicians know that depression  may affect many areas of functioning. The SCOPES model is one way to consider the impact of depression on multiple areas of functioning such as distressing thoughts (C), feelings (E), behavior patterns (O: e.g., avoidance of engaging activities), physiological symptoms (P: e.g., appetite, sleep, sex), and Social Context (S: e.g., relationships that may help or worsen symptoms). Finally, clinicians and patients may consider core effects on the self (S) where self-esteem and self-identity may be negatively affected by depression. When applicable, treatments may include Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy, physical activity, increasing social connections, and medication.

Focusing on only one dimension of human functioning can lead to unrealistic views if we forget that each dimension of functioning interacts with the others. For example, our memories of important people from childhood are part of cognition but affect our emotions, behavior, and even our physiological reactions. Memories are part of our self-identity and may affect our spirituality too. Finally, our memories can be triggered by events in our social context like a photograph, a trip to our home town, or a movie.

                                 THE SIX COMPONENTS OF THE SCOPES MODEL

S   SELF-IDENTITY

Self-identity is a composite of several broad core features (see COPE below) that we recognize as who we are. We usually have more than one identity based on our roles in life (e.g., spouse/partner, parent, child, supervisor), personal characteristics (e.g., degree of fitness, health, intelligence, attractiveness, age), and groups (e.g., political, interest, sports fan, religious). One or a few identities stand out as highly important such as spiritual identity (see below), gender identity, or identities linked to subjectively important life roles (e.g., parent, doctor, grandparent, spouse).

We project ourselves to others through our core dimensions of expressed thoughts (cognition), feelings (emotion), observable behaviors (personality traits), and observed physical attributes. We may express our selves differently in different social contexts.

One multidimensional model that organizes several features of the self is the tetrapartite model (Cheek & Cheek, 2018). The model organizes over 40 potential aspects of identity into four categories of self-identity: personal, relational, collective, public. 

One of my research interests is in the psychology of religion and spirituality so let me give an example of  the spiritual aspect of identity. Spirituality includes religious and other ways people find meaning in life. Most organized religious faiths include a set of specific beliefs and prescribed practices but these are integrated with each person’s spiritual experience. For example, a person’s dreams and visions, and culture influence how they pray and what they identify as right and wrong. Atheists and those with nontraditional spirituality may describe meaningful experiences in the beauty of nature and music. For some, the spiritual dimension is so vital to their identity that it dominates their clothing choices, communicated beliefs, daily practices like prayer, interactions with others, music they enjoy, and what they eat or refuse to eat.

Following is an illustration of the SCOPES model where the primary self-identity is spiritual and they have a particular religious or spiritual worldview.

Examples of Test Related to the Self Domain

 

 Self-concept scales

 Self-esteem scales

 Self-efficacy scales

 Spirituality and religiosity scales

 Gender Identity scales

C   COGNITION

It doesn’t take long to form an impression of a person’s general intelligence. Sometimes we are awed and sometimes—not so much. But there’s more to cognition than solving problems on intelligence tests. We can include many neuropsychological processes such as memory, attention and concentration, language skills, and visual-spatial skills as well as cognitive biases and prejudices. 

Some aspects of cognition have a huge impact on identity such as extreme deficits in attention span, incredible ability to solve complex problems, or persistent declines in memory for self and others.

Examples of Test Related to the Cognitive Domain

  Tests of intelligence

  Tests of achievement

  Tests of language and verbal skills

  Tests of creativity

  Tests of memory

   Mental status exams

O   OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOR PATTERNS OR PERSONALITY

I used the letter O so it works with the acrostic. Essentially, people may be described in terms of a few or many durable traits like the famous Big Five listed below. 

Openness: intelligent, imaginative, insightful
Conscientious: organized, thorough, planners
Extraversion: talkative, outgoing, energetic, assertive; contrasted with introversion
Agreeable: forgiving, sympathetic, kind, affectionate
Neuroticism (v. stability) tense, moody, anxious

There are other traits or characteristics that may be added like dominance and psychopathy. People are different. We usually act in fairly predictable ways--habit patterns and traits that are part of who we are. For example, we may be known to ourselves and others as agreeable or shy.

Examples of Test Related to the Observable Behavior or Personality Domain

  Tests of personality e.g.,   Big Five,    HEXACO,    16PF

   VIA Inventory of Strengths

 

  Behavioral observations

  

 Tests of various traits e.g., leadership, narcissism, psychopathology

P   PHYSIOLOGY OR BIOLOGY

We all come with bodies and many of us with less than culturally desirable bodies protest that we are more than mere bodies. We want to be known for what’s "inside". Nevertheless, our physiology is a critical part of who we are. Drives for hunger, thirst, sleep, and sex vary from person to person and those biological factors vary for each of us during a day, week, or year. Measures of biological status can change and influence other aspects of who we are- height, weight, blood pressure, and more. Biology shapes our identity and we influence our biology and that of others.

We know that despite protests, people think of others in terms of a biological factors like blindness or deafness or another challenge. I am deaf in my left ear, but I did not think of myself as hearing impaired until I began to have difficulty hearing with my right ear. Now I wear a hearing aid. Some have a mental health diagnosis and are referred to by that diagnosis such as alcoholics or Schizophrenics. Some are known by a disease they have or survived such as cancer. One aspect of our entire personal identity can be a physiological status that is defining or confining. We know that we and others are more than a biological fact but somehow, we often fail to think beyond the “P” dimension. Physiology is a powerful part of self-identity.

Examples of Test Related to biopsychology

  Tests of motor functioning e.g., grip strength, finger tapping

  Tests of brain functioning e.g., MRI, EEG

  Various lab tests (e.g., blood, urine) detecting factors affecting the other domains

  Tests of stress that include biopsychological symptoms

  Questionnaires about sexual functioning

  Questionnaires about alcohol and other drugs

  Questionnaires about sleep, diet, and other health habits affecting other domains

E   EMOTIONS or feelings

Our emotions influence our identity and our judgments about others. There are many ways to show our emotions. Psychological scientists disagree on what may constitute core emotions. As a psychologist, I was tuned in to sadness, anxiety, and anger as well as joy and a sense of calm. More common emotions include fear, worry, hate, guilt, and that complex we call love. Feelings are critical to understanding who we are and why people do what they do. In some cases, our feelings can represent an important part of our identity as in I am a happy person despite times of sadness. And sometimes an "emotional identity" is less desirable.

Examples of Tests Related to the Emotional Domain

  Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS)

  State Joy Scale

  Anger Scales

  Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS)

S   SOCIAL:  OUR SPACE-TIME CONTEXT

The people in our lives and where we live out our day-to-day existence influences who we are even as we influence others. Our personal timeline is a factor too. We and others see common threads of who we are since childhood but we also see changes. Looking back, we may see events, people, or places that resulted in major changes in who we are today. Like many immigrants, the move from one country to another was a big deal for me and my parents. 

Our relationships matter. Relationships affect our spiritual faith, thoughts, feelings, behavior patterns and even our health. A recently divorced cantankerous fifty-year old man with a history of alcohol abuse may feel anger, distress, and worry. A 35 year-old woman may feel happy and enjoy a sense of freedom as she boards a cruise with a friend. People are different in their relationships. Some feel liberated by divorce whilst others feel devastated. Some worry about finding a mate whilst others intentionally live a single life. Some prefer frequent interaction with friends whilst others require large periods of aloneness.

The people we identify as "my people" or "my family" and places (e.g., my hometown, my country) and epochs of time (I grew up in the 50s and 60s) may also be a part of our identity.

Examples of Tests Related to the Social Domain

  Tests of relationships at home, work, places of worship, and other social settings

    e.g., Marital Satisfaction,             Parent-child Relationship Scale

  Tests of organizational relationships e.g., climate, trust, etc.

  

  Tests measuring relational concepts such as forgiveness and reconciliation

SCOPES and HUMAN NATURE

The SCOPES model is a way of organizing information about ourselves and others. It is a way of recognizing we are complex beings who change in many ways. We respond to others and our environments in ways that change us. And we have an effect on others and our environment. At any given point, a few dimensions may be more important than others such as when we feel depressed at the loss of a loved one or joyful when we celebrate a birthday.

We should also be aware that activity in one or two dimensions affects the other dimensions even when we are not aware of the effects. A loud noise like a gunshot can produce fear, thoughts of safety, memories of past terror, crouching behavior, increased heart rate and even a cry for divine intervention.

SCOPES in CONTEXT

As the core self-concept within the SCOPES model interacts with the social dimension, a person develops their worldview, which is their major organizing schema for interacting with the people, objects, and other entities within their social context.

Read More

I have included specific names of more tests in the research text, Creating Surveys used in universities and by individuals.

I have applied the SCOPES model to analyzing moral-social judgments in A House Divided: Sexuality, Morality, and Christian Cultures 

The SCOPES model also forms a basis for organizing research in the text:  Counseling and Psychotherapy with Pentecostal and Charismatic Christians.

The science behind the SCOPES model. 

Those familiar with psychology will recognize the common Cognitive-Affective-Behavior constructs in Cognitive-Behavioral-Therapy and attitude theory, which involved the COE dimensions. Most clinicians have coursework in the biological basis of behavior hence, the P dimension. The Social dimension includes a recognition of social contexts and time contexts, which draw upon studies in social psychology and developmental psychology-- an S dimension. Finally, the other S is for the Self, which is our way of integrating all the dimensions of ourselves into a few key identities.

Many will also recognize the importance of the environment, which I include in the Social dimension. I have also been influenced by the BASIC-ID of Arnold Lazarus—a part of his work in Multimodal Therapy and Kurt Levin’s field theory or concept of lifespace.

Cite this post (APA)

Sutton, G. W. (2022, August 24). SCOPES model of human functioning. Psychology concepts and theories. Retrieved from https://suttonpsychology.blogspot.com/2021/07/scopes-model-of-human-functioning.html

Cite this book reference for the SCOPES Model.

Sutton, G. W. (2021). Creating surveys: Second Edition| How to create and administer surveys, evaluate workshops & seminars, interpret and present results. Springfield, MO: Sunflower.   AMAZON   Paperback ISBN-13:  9798712780327     website

Test Resources

The A-Z list of tests and questionnaires for clinicians and researchers

You can read about tests and survey items to measure the SCOPES dimensions in my 2017 book, Creating Surveys. Available on AMAZON    and Google

The SCOPES model was applied to understanding morality in Christian cultures in A House Divided.

Sutton, Geoffrey W. A House Divided: Sexuality, Morality, and Christian Cultures. Eugene, OR: Pickwick. Also available on AMAZON.

Counseling and Psychotherapy with Pentecostal and Charismatic Christians Available from Amazon and Google

Connection:  www.suttong.com

This post updated February 8, 2023

Publications referring to the SCOPES model.

Sutton, G. W. (2021). Counseling and psychotherapy with Pentecostal and Charismatic Christians: Culture & Research | Assessment & Practice. Springfield, MO: Sunflower.  ISBN-13 : 979-8681036524     

Sutton, G. W. (2017). Creating surveys: Evaluating programs and reading research. Springfield, MO: Sunflower.   AMAZON   Paperback ISBN-10: 1522012729  ISBN-13:  9781522012726     website

Sutton, G. W. (2016). A House Divided: Sexuality, morality, and Christian cultures. Eugene, OR: Pickwick. ISBN: 9781498224888

Sutton, G. W. & Mittelstadt, M. W. (2012). Loving God and loving others: Learning about love from psychological science and Pentecostal perspectives. Journal of Christianity and Psychology, 31, 157-166.  Academia Link    Research Gate Link

Sutton, G.W. & Schmidly, B. (eds.) (2016). Christian morality: An interdisciplinary framework for thinking about contemporary moral issues. Eugene, OR: Pickwick. ISBN: 9781498204767

Sutton, G.W., & Thomas, E. K. (2005). Can derailed pastors be restored? Effects of offense and age on restoration. Pastoral Psychology, 53, 583-599.

Worthington, E. L. (2020). How to Discuss Controversial Sexual Issues with Christians Who Don’t (and Do) Agree with You. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 48(3), 229–233. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091647120908017

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

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Dr. Sutton’s posts are for educational purposes only. See a licensed mental health provider for diagnoses, treatment, and consultation.