Viktor Frankl: Concepts and Theories

Viktor Frankly Museum, Vienna, Austria

 Viktor Frankl: Concepts and Theories

I first read Frankl's book as an undergraduate in psychology. His observations led to practical interventions in psychotherapy. In Vienna, I visited his place of work now preserved as a museum as pictured above.

Viktor Emil Frankl (March 26, 1905 – September 2, 1997) was an Austrian psychiatrist, neurologist, and Holocaust survivor who founded Logotherapy, a form of psychotherapy that emphasizes the search for meaning in life as the primary motivational force for humans. 

Will to Meaning: Frankl believed that the primary motivational force in humans is the pursuit of meaning in life, rather than pleasure (as proposed by Freud) or power (as proposed by Adler).

Meaning of Life: According to Frankl, life has meaning under all circumstances, even the most miserable ones. This meaning can be found through work, love, suffering, and by adopting a particular attitude towards unavoidable suffering.

Freedom of Will: Frankl emphasized that humans have the freedom to choose their attitudes and responses to life's challenges, even when they cannot change their circumstances.

Existential Vacuum: This concept refers to a sense of emptiness and lack of purpose that individuals may experience, which can lead to feelings of meaninglessness and existential frustration.

Paradoxical Intention: A technique used in Logotherapy where individuals are encouraged to confront their fears by intentionally exaggerating them, thereby reducing their anxiety.

Dereflection: This technique involves shifting focus away from oneself and towards others or external tasks, helping individuals overcome self-centered worries and anxieties.

Tragic Triad: Frankl identified three sources of existential frustration: unavoidable suffering, unavoidable guilt, and irremediable loss. He believed that finding meaning in these experiences is crucial for psychological well-being.

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About Viktor Frankl

Born in Vienna, Frankl studied psychology and philosophy, and corresponded with Sigmund Freud as a teenager. He earned his medical degree from the University of Vienna in 19301.

During World War II, Frankl was imprisoned in several Nazi concentration camps, including Theresienstadt, Auschwitz, and Bergen-Belsen, where he lost his parents and wife. His experiences in the camps deeply influenced his psychological theories, particularly the idea that finding meaning in life is essential for mental health1.

After the war, Frankl returned to Vienna and became head of the neurological department at the General Polyclinic Hospital. He published numerous books, including his best-known work, Man's Search for Meaning (1946), which details his experiences in the concentration camps and outlines the principles of Logotherapy.

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Man's Search for Meaning
Now a rare edition

Publications and Editions

Frankl, V. E. (1946). Man's search for meaning. Beacon Press.  [SEE SUMMARY]

Frankl, V. E. (1955). The doctor and the soul. Verlag Herder.

Frankl, V. E. (1967). Psychotherapy and existentialism. Simon & Schuster.

Frankl, V. E. (1969). The will to meaning: Foundations and applications of logotherapy. Plume.

Frankl, V. E. (1974). Man's search for ultimate meaning. Plume.

Frankl, V. E. (1978). The unheard cry for meaning. Simon & Schuster. [AMAZON]

Frankl, V. E. (1988). The will to meaning: Foundations and applications of logotherapy. Plume.

Frankl, V. E. (1995). Recollections: An autobiography. Basic Books.

Frankl, V. E. (2000). Viktor Frankl recollections: An autobiography. Basic Books. AMAZON

Frankl, V. E. (2006). Man's search for meaning. Beacon Press. [SEE SUMMARY]

Frankl, V. E. (2017). Man's search for meaning: A young adult edition. Beacon Press. [AMAZON]

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Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

See Geoffrey Sutton’s books on   AMAZON       or  GOOGLE STORE

Follow on    FACEBOOK   Geoff W. Sutton    

   X  @Geoff.W.Sutton    

You can read many published articles at no charge:

  Academia   Geoff W Sutton     ResearchGate   Geoffrey W Sutton 

 

Dr. Sutton’s posts are for educational purposes only. See a licensed mental health provider for diagnoses, treatment, and consultation. 

Maslow and the Psychology of Needs

Maslow's Need Hierarchy
Created 2024 by Geoffrey W. Sutton

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. 

From the bottom of the hierarchy upwards, the needs are:

Physiological Needs: These are biological requirements for human survival, such as air, food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, and sleep.

Safety Needs: These include personal security, financial security, health and well-being, and safety nets against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts.

Love and Belongingness Needs: These involve emotional relationships including friendships, romantic attachments, and family.

Esteem Needs: These include self-esteem, recognition, status, and respect from others.

Self-Actualization Needs: This is the realization of personal potential, self-fulfillment, and seeking personal growth and peak experiences.

Maslow believed that these needs must be satisfied in order, starting from the bottom and working up.

Criticisms

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs has been widely influential, but it has also faced several criticisms over the years:

Lack of Empirical Evidence: Critics argue that Maslow's theory lacks rigorous scientific research and empirical evidence to support its claims. The theory is often considered more descriptive than predictive.

Cultural Bias: The hierarchy is seen as reflecting Western values and may not be universally applicable across different cultures. Some cultures may prioritize social needs over individual needs, for example.

Over-Simplification: The theory is criticized for oversimplifying human motivation and behavior by categorizing needs into a rigid hierarchy. In reality, human needs and motivations are more complex and fluid.

Sequential Assumption: Maslow's original theory suggests that lower-level needs must be fully satisfied before higher-level needs can be pursued. However, research has shown that these needs can overlap and be pursued simultaneously.

Neglect of Relationships: Some critics argue that the hierarchy undervalues the importance of relationships and social connections, which can be fundamental to human well-being at any stage.

Unscientific Methods: Maslow's conclusions were drawn from personal observations and biographical analyses, which are considered less reliable and unscientific by modern standards.

About Maslow

Abraham Harold Maslow (April 1, 1908 – June 8, 1970) was an American psychologist best known for creating Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a theory of psychological health predicated on fulfilling innate human needs in priority, culminating in self-actualization. Born in Brooklyn, New York, to Jewish immigrant parents from Russia, Maslow spent much of his childhood in libraries, developing a love for reading and learning.

He initially studied law at the City College of New York but switched to psychology at the University of Wisconsin, where he earned his bachelor's, master's, and doctorate degrees. Maslow taught at Brooklyn College and later became a professor at Brandeis University, where he remained until 19693.

Maslow's humanistic approach to psychology emphasized the positive qualities in people and their potential for growth. His major works include Motivation and Personality (1954) and Toward a Psychology of Being (1962). He also introduced the concept of peak experiences, moments of highest happiness and fulfillment.

REFERENCES

Enright, R. D. (2018). Why Maslow’s self-actualization theory is not quite right. Psychology Today. Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-forgiving-life/201805/why-maslows-self-actualization-theory-is-not-quite-right

Geller, L. (1982). The failure of self-actualization theory. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 22(1), 64-72.

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370-396. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346

Maslow, A. H. (1954). Motivation and Personality. Harper & Row.

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

See Geoffrey Sutton’s books on   AMAZON       or  GOOGLE STORE

Follow on    FACEBOOK   Geoff W. Sutton    

   X  @Geoff.W.Sutton    

You can read many published articles at no charge:

  Academia   Geoff W Sutton     ResearchGate   Geoffrey W Sutton 

 

Dr. Sutton’s posts are for educational purposes only. See a licensed mental health provider for diagnoses, treatment, and consultation. 

Narcissism in psychology

The VIP 2024
AI image by Geoffrey Sutton with Designer

Narcissism is a multifaceted personality trait that can range from mild to extreme levels of characteristics like positive self-esteem, high self-importance, feeling entitled and deserving of better treatment compared to others, obsessed with being more intelligent than others, and overly self-focused.

Narcissism At low levels, some facets of the narcissistic trait can be advantageous. For example, they may appear as confident, charming, and winsome. They may do well at school and work as they live out their self-view as accomplished and more intelligent than others.

Narcissism At higher levels, several facets of the narcissistic trait can be harmful in a range of relationships including romantic, parent-child, and with peers on school and work teams. They can be very difficult supervisors.

When the facets of narcissism routinely occur at levels that set people apart from average, they are referred to as narcissists.

When several facets of the narcissistic trait persist at high levels and interfere with functioning, mental health clinicians use the term Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD), which is one of the troublesome dark triad traits, covered in a separate entry.

Narcissistic Patterns

Researchers such as Maria Leniarska and her colleagues study patterns of narcissism thus, the concept of narcissism may be refined based on evidence-based behavior patterns. For example, in one study she and her team examined how different types of people with narcissistic traits reacted to negative feedback about their intelligence.

Here are those subconcepts or subtypes of narcissists.

Grandiose narcissists have an exaggerated sense of self-importance, entitlement, and selfishness. At high levels, the risk of bad decisions increases due to overconfidence in their own abilities and intuition rather than considering other perspectives. O'Reilly and Hall (2021) describe the pattern as follows:

A substantial body of research has documented that grandiose narcissists are characterized by high self-esteem, a sense of personal superiority and entitlement, overconfidence, a willingness to exploit others for self-gain, and hostility and aggression when challenged. (Abstract)

Agentic narcissists possess high and stable self-esteem. They are outgoing, enjoy admiration, see themselves as exceptionally talented in all areas, and exude charm. Their inflated self-image is built on traits like proactivity and high achievement.

Antagonistic narcissists have fluctuating self-esteem, experience negative emotions, and exhibit hostile behavior. Despite their unstable self-esteem, they believe they deserve more than others and often compete, belittle, or harm others.

Communal narcissists derive their inflated self-views from excelling in communal aspects. They see themselves as the most helpful, best friends, and outstanding philanthropists.

Vulnerable narcissists are often characterized by defensiveness, avoidance, insecurity, hypersensitivity, and a heightened vigilance for criticism. Despite these traits, they crave recognition and admiration from others to bolster their self-worth. When they feel underestimated, they may withdraw and adopt a passive attitude in interpersonal relationships. Vulnerable narcissism is also linked to lower levels of self-esteem, extraversion, and agreeableness, as well as higher levels of neuroticism, a negative view of the past, and a fatalistic attitude.

Coping with people high in narcissistic traits

In general, effective coping likely requires recognizing the specific pattern of narcissism that causes distress. Given the variety of patterns and a person's unique situation (e.g., spouse, romantic partner, supervisee), consulting a psychologist may be vital to wellbeing. However, some general strategies may be worth considering.

1. Avoid arguing--arguments rarely convince a narcissist.

2. Establish psychological boundaries to avoid abusive language and actions.

3. Avoid justification or explanations of acts unrelated to the task at hand. When providing an explanation seems reasonable, avoid over-elaboration.

4. Romantic relationships can be distressful when the narcissist's charm wears off and the narcissist's demands for attention increase. The lack of mutual concern and empathy interferes with a balanced give-and-take needed to show mutual support through life together. Outside help from a psychologist or other mental health clinician can be helpful when it's hard to figure out what's going on in a distressful relationship.

Related Posts

Narcissistic Personality Disorder

Gaslighting

Psychology's Dark Triad

Narcissistic Personality Inventory

Dark Triad Scale

References

Leniarska, M., Zajenkowski, M., Zeigler-Hill, V., Górniak, J., & Turek, A. (2024). You better not tell me I'm not intelligent! Grandiose narcissism and reaction to negative intelligence feedback. Personality and Individual Differences, 221, 112548. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2024.112548

Leniarska, M., & Zajenkowski, M. (2022). Why narcissism reduces distress: The consequences of narcissistic intellectual self-confidence. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 668257. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.668257

O'Reilly, C. A., & Hall, N. (2021). Grandiose narcissists and decision making: Impulsive, overconfident, and skeptical of experts-but seldom in doubt. Personality and individual differences, 168, 110280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110280

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

See Geoffrey Sutton’s books on   AMAZON       or  GOOGLE STORE

Follow on    FACEBOOK   Geoff W. Sutton    

   X  @Geoff.W.Sutton    

You can read many published articles at no charge:

  Academia   Geoff W Sutton     ResearchGate   Geoffrey W Sutton 

 

Dr. Sutton’s posts are for educational purposes only. See a licensed mental health provider for diagnoses, treatment, and consultation. 

Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD)

 

Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD)

Recent thinking about NPD considers this personality pattern having three primary dimensions (see DSM-5 reference below):

1. grandiosity

2. need for admiration

3. lack of empathy for others

From a diagnostic perspective, these features should be pervasive rather than episodic and NPD is not usually diagnosed until adulthood. In addition, to warrant the diagnosis of a disorder, there needs to be evidence that the pattern produces significant personal distress or produces a significant impairment in how the person functions in important areas of life such as relationships or work.

 Narcissistic Personality Disorder should not be confused with the common language use of the term narcissism or narcissist.

Clinicians look for evidence of at least five features from a list of common features. The person with an SPD pattern may be described as:

1. Grandiose with a strong sense of self-importance

2. Preoccupied with fantasies of great success, power, exceptional intelligence, attractiveness

3. Believe they are very special and even unique. They are so special that they should only connect with important people who are able to understand them.

4. Requires excessive praise, approval, and admiration

5. Entitled with an unreasonable expectation of being treated with great respect

6. Exploits others, skilled in taking advantage of other people

7. Lacking empathy emotional empathy but may display cognitive empathy

8. Appears envious, jealous, distrustful or concerned that others feel that way toward them

9. Arrogant, haughty, scornful

Assessment

Psychologists rely on a diagnostic interview, which includes a clinical history, and may administer psychological tests. In some settings, a leader with NPD can spell disaster for an organization.

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The following abbreviated summary comes from NIH, which should be consulted for details and updated information (Mitra & Fluyua, 2023)

What causes NPD?

Researchers have focused on a few possibilities. They find common traits of aggression, low tolerance for distress and problems regulating their emotions. Others have identified rejection in childhood and excessive praise and communicating that the child has extraordinary talents.

How common is NPD?

In the US, NPD ranges from .5 to 5% of the population but in a clinical setting rates may be as high as 15%.

What other conditions occur with NPD?

The most common condition contributing to difficulties is the cooccurrence of antisocial personality disorder.

Are there subtypes?

Researchers have considered two subtypes of NPD:

1. Grandiose- overt grandiosity, aggression, boldness

2. Vulnerable- hypersensitivity, defensiveness

Biopsychology

There is some evidence for brain differences in German studies.

Measurement

See Narcissistic Personality Inventory

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Information from the American Psychiatric Association (APA, 2024)

The US rate of NPD was estimated as 1-2% of the population.

Considering the two subtypes noted above, see this quote from the APA.

In addition to grandiosity, narcissistic personality disorder has a significant vulnerability aspect, and individuals may alternate between the two (Edershile 2022). Vulnerability may make individuals very sensitive to criticism or defeat and although they may not show it, those experiences may leave them feeling ashamed, degraded and empty. People with the disorder may react to criticism or defeat with disdain and defiance, or with social withdrawal or an appearance of humility, which masks the grandiosity (APA 2022). Although they seem like quite different traits, researchers have found that both aspects of narcissism have in common selfishness, deceitfulness and callousness (Kwon 2023).

See the APA link for more details.

 

Other comments

1. People with a personality disorder may have traits of other disorders including sufficient traits to meet the criteria for more than one condition.

2. People with a personality disorder may have other conditions such as a mood disorder.

3. Treatment is difficult and may be complicated by other more salient conditions like depression or substance abuse. See the links to NIH and the APA for more about treatment.

4. Research can change our understanding of NPD so, the 3 key features and the list of 9 features may change in the future. The DSM is updated periodically to reflect the latest research.

5. People may have narcissistic traits without meeting the criteria for a disorder. Personality traits are durable and pervasive patterns of behavior. Some personality traits can interfere with work and family relationships. So, not everyone who has a grandiose view of themselves meets criteria for NPD, but they may still have difficulties in various situations.

6. Narcissistic characteristics such as having a sense of entitlement, low empathy, desiring admiration, and appearing self-centered are a matter of degree. They may cause some difficulties but do not reach the point of severe impairment for the person or others. Sometimes these narcissistic characteristics may appear in a situation but not be present on a long-term basis.

 

Related Posts

Psychology’s Toxic Triad – Narcissism, Psychopathy, Machiavellianism

Dark Triad Scale

Narcissistic Personality Inventory

 

 

 

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Personality disorders. In Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fifth Edition ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing Inc.

Cite this post

Sutton, G. W. (2024, April 16). Narcissistic personality disorder (NPD). PSYCHOLOGY concepts and theories. Retrieved from https://suttonpsychology.blogspot.com/2024/04/narcissistic-personality-disorder-npd.html

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

See Geoffrey Sutton’s books on   AMAZON       or  GOOGLE STORE

Follow on    FACEBOOK   Geoff W. Sutton    

   X  @Geoff.W.Sutton    

You can read many published articles at no charge:

  Academia   Geoff W Sutton     ResearchGate   Geoffrey W Sutton 

 

Dr. Sutton’s posts are for educational purposes only. See a licensed mental health provider for diagnoses, treatment, and consultation. 

Dementia

Dementia is a neurocognitive disorder characterized by impaired cognitive processes of attention, memory, thinking, and decision making.

Dementia is caused by various diseases. One common disease is Alzheimer's disease. Other types of dementia include:

Vascular dementia

Lewy body dementia,

Fronto-temporal dementia

Mixed dementia

Dementia is most commonly observed in older adults but it is not a part of normal aging.

Assessment of Dementia

Clinical neuropsychologists evaluate a patient's cognitive abilities for impairments. In addition, clinical neuropsychologists assess adaptive functioning. That is, how well the person manages vocational, social, and other dimensions of life. Dementia affects people in different ways. Although memory and thinking processes are hallmarks of the dementias, changes in personality patterns and emotional functioning combine to interfere with personal and social functioning.

Physicians may perform medical tests and prescribe medication. Often, there are other medical conditions to consider as a part of the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment options.

The data not only identify a patient's current status but the data also provides a baseline to measure future changes in cognitive and adaptive abilities. Although, in cases of an identifiable disease process, the future is usually a decline in functioning, some causes of dementia may be reversible. In addition, new medications may reduce the rate of decline.

Resources

CDC Centers of Disease Control and Prevention

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

See Geoffrey Sutton’s books on   AMAZON       or  GOOGLE STORE

Follow on    FACEBOOK   Geoff W. Sutton    

   TWITTER  @Geoff.W.Sutton    

You can read many published articles at no charge:

  Academia   Geoff W Sutton     ResearchGate   Geoffrey W Sutton 

 

Dr. Sutton’s posts are for educational purposes only. See a licensed mental health provider for diagnoses, treatment, and consultation.

Barnum effect in psychology

 

The Barnum effect is a psychological phenomenon that occurs when people believe that vague and general descriptions of their personality, character, or life experiences are uniquely tailored to them, even though they are actually applicable to a wide range of people. It is also known as the Forer effect, named after psychologist Bertram Forer who first demonstrated it in the 1940s.

One classic study by Forer (1949) demonstrated the Barnum effect by having his students complete a personality test, and then gave them a supposedly individualized description of their personality that was actually a mix of generic statements that could apply to almost anyone. The results showed that the students rated the description as highly accurate and applicable to their own personality, despite the fact that the description was not unique to them.

The Barnum effect has been demonstrated in a variety of contexts, including astrology, horoscopes, and psychic readings. It is thought to be related to cognitive biases such as confirmation bias, where people seek out information that confirms their existing beliefs or expectations.

Overall, the Barnum effect highlights the tendency for people to find meaning in vague and general statements, and the importance of critical thinking and skepticism when evaluating information about oneself.

References

Forer, B. R. (1949). The fallacy of personal validation: A classroom demonstration of gullibility. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 44(1), 118-123. doi: 10.1037/h0059240

Nickerson, R. S. (1998). Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises. Review of General Psychology, 2(2), 175-220. doi: 10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

See Geoffrey Sutton’s books on   AMAZON       or  GOOGLE STORE

Follow on    FACEBOOK   Geoff W. Sutton    

   TWITTER  @Geoff.W.Sutton    

You can read many published articles at no charge:

  Academia   Geoff W Sutton     ResearchGate   Geoffrey W Sutton 

 

Dr. Sutton’s posts are for educational purposes only. See a licensed mental health provider for diagnoses, treatment, and consultation.

 

Psychology of Perfectionism

 

Perfectionism is a multidimensional durable pattern of behavior viewed by many psychological scientists as a personality trait (e.g., Smith et al., 2021).

Several facets of the perfectionism trait have been identified. Considering the language of the researchers, it is probably best to think of perfectionism as a metatrait with several subtraits or, in the language of personality inventories, a domain with a set of facets. For a review of the six facets of perfectionism, see Smith et al. (2021) who refer to the six facets as components.

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Cite this post

Sutton, G. W. (2023). Psychology of perfectionism. Psychology Concepts and Theories. Retrieved from https://suttonpsychology.blogspot.com/2023/03/psychology-of-perfectionism.html

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Following is a list of the six facets grouped by two subdomains.

Three subtraits of perfectionism

• ·         Self-oriented perfectionism (Demanding that oneself be perfect)
• ·         Other-oriented perfectionism (Demanding that others be perfect)
• ·         Socially prescribed perfectionism (Belief that others demand perfectionism of oneself)

Three perfectionistic attitudes

• ·         Personal standards perfectionism (Personal standards of conduct cannot be attained)
• ·         Concern over mistakes (An obsessive worry or concern)
• ·         Doubts about actions (Doubts about the adequacy of personal action)

 

EXPANDED DESCRIPTIONS OF PERFECTIONISM

Three subtraits of perfectionism

Self-oriented perfectionism

  > Strong negative self-evaluation of substandard behavior

  > Constantly striving to achieve perfection

  > highly motivated to avoid failure

 

Other-oriented perfectionism

  > a hypercritical and demanding imposition of standards on others

  > relentlessly and harshly demanding that others be perfect

  > blaming others

  > extreme and rigid arrogance

Socially prescribed perfectionism

  > attempts to be perfect based on beliefs of the standards expected by other people

  > a relational trait

Three perfectionistic attitudes

 

Personal standards perfectionism

  > setting exceptionally high standards

  > belief in the importance of the high standards

 

Concern over mistakes

  > distress over personal mistakes

  > linking distress to evaluating oneself as a failure

  > high sensitivity to failure

  > concerned with loss of respect

 

Doubts about actions

  > obsessive self-doubt

  > indecisiveness

 

 

PERFECTIONISM: DIMENSIONALITY OR TYPOLOGY

In psychology, human behavior is usually viewed on a continuum although some write as if an aspect of personality represents a type or category. Given the way psychologists measure perfectionism and other traits, it is possible to have a range of scores representing the strength of a behavior pattern thus, a categorical term like perfectionist would mean a person with a high degree of the perfectionism trait evident in more than one measured facet.

 

PERFECTIONISM AND PERSONALITY

Researchers have examined the relationship between perfectionism and the Five Factor Model (FFM). The correlations vary with the perfectionism facet and the FFM domain.

FFM	Perfectionism
conscientiousness	Self-oriented, personal standards
agreeableness	Low socially prescribed
neuroticism	Concern over mistakes, doubts about actions

 

PERFECTIONISM AND MENTAL DISORDERS- EXAMPLES

Researchers have reported correlations between perfectionism scores and mental disorders.

 

Perfectionism	Mental Disorders	Reference
perfectionism	OCD	Pinto et al., 2017
Self-oriented, socially prescribed	Depression	Smith et al., 2021
Other-oriented perfectionism	Antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic	Sherry et al., 2007
Socially prescribed perfectionism	Depression, anxiety, hostility, suicide	Blankstein et al., 2007; Enns & Cox, 2002; Smith et al., 2018
Concern over mistakes	Eating disorders	Kehayes et al., 2019

 

PERFECTIONISM AND RELIGIOSITY or SPIRITUALITY

Perfectionism is often found in people with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). In OCD, the obsessions cause intense distress, which appears to be temporarily relieved by compulsive behavior. The obsessions include recurrent and intrusive thoughts and images (Pinto et al., 2017). One type of OCD is scrupulosity, which has also been called religious OCD (Phillips & Fisak, 2022). One measure of scrupulosity is the Penn Inventory of Scrupulosity (PIOS, Abramowitz et al., 2002). Olatunji et al. (2017) reported a revised version of the PIOS was significantly correlated (r = 0.43) with a measure of obsessive-compulsive symptoms (Obsessive Compulsive Inventory-Revised (Olatunji et al., 2007). Wang et al. (2018) reported a strong correlation between religious perfectionism and scrupulosity using the Perceived Perfectionism from God Scale (PPGS) . There are two subscales of the PPGS (Perceived Standards from God and Perceived Discrepancy from God). The correlations reveal a stronger link between scrupulosity measured on the PIOS) and God discrepancy (.55) than for God standards (.17) although both were reliable findings (ps < . 001).

Summary of perfectionism and religiosity

Religious perfectionism can be seen in people who aim to live up to standards of conduct perceived to be from God and they may evaluate the degree to which they do not meet those standards. Some may become considerably distressed with their failure to meet the perceived godly standards. This distress may reach diagnostic standards for the type of OCD known as scrupulosity.

  PERFECTIONISM: PRO AND CON

Perfectionism has strong links to maladaptive behavior and considerable mental distress. However, some researchers find an aspect of perfectionism to be adaptive. That is, some people who strive to be perfect are recognized by others as meeting high standards if not perfection. Perhaps the prime example is a rating of 10 on a 10-point scale used in athletic competitions or a perfect game in baseball. See Smith et al. (2018) for more on the general notion of adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism. See Wang et al. (2018) for an example of two factors in a form of religious perfectionism.

Measuring Perfectionism

Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale-Brief (FMPS-B; Burgess et al., 2016)

Perfectionistic Self-Presentation Scale (PSPS; Hewitt et al., 2003)

Perfectionism Cognitions Inventory (PCI, Flett et al., 1998)

Almost perfect scale-revised (APS-R; Slaney et al., 1996)

Physical appearance perfectionism scale (PAPS; Yang et al., 2012)

Perceived Perfectionism from God Scale (PPGS)

Cite this post

Sutton, G. W. (2023). Psychology of perfectionism. Psychology Concepts and Theories. Retrieved from https://suttonpsychology.blogspot.com/2023/03/psychology-of-perfectionism.html

 

References

Abramowitz, J. S., Huppert, J. D., Cohen, A. B., Tolin, D. F., & Cahill, S. P. (2002). Religious obsessions and compulsions in a non-clinical sample: The Penn inventory of scrupulosity (PIOS). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40(7), 824–838

Blankstein, K. R., Lumley, C., & Crawford, A. (2007). Perfectionism, hopelessness, and suicide ideation: Revisions to diathesis-stress and specific vulnerability models. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive Behavior Therapy, 25(4), 279–319. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10942-007- 0053-6

Burgess, A. M., Frost, R. O., & DiBartolo, P. M. (2016). Development and Validation of the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale–Brief. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 34(7), 620–633. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282916651359

 

Enns, M. W., & Cox, B. J. (2002). The nature and assessment of perfectionism: A critical analysis. In G. L. Flett & P. L. Hewitt (Eds.), Perfectionism: Theory, research, and treatment (pp. 33–62). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10458-002

Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., Blankstein, K. R., & Gray, L. (1998). Psychological distress and the frequency of perfectionistic thinking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(5), 1363-1381. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.75.5.1363

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Yang, H., & Stoeber, J. (2012). The Physical Appearance Perfectionism Scale: Development and preliminary validation. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 34(1), 69–83. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-011-9260-7

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Perfectionism has been linked to suicide and suicidal ideation.

Help is available:

National Suicide Prevention Lifeline number 988.

Call 911.

Go to the nearest emergency room.

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

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