PSYCHOLOGY OF TIME
Psychologists view time as a multifaceted construct influenced by cognitive, emotional, and cultural factors. Research often explores how individuals perceive, estimate, and experience time, which can vary based on age, mood, and context. For example, time may seem to "fly" during enjoyable activities but "drag" during unpleasant ones. Studies also examine how time perception impacts decision-making, memory, and behavior.
Organizing Research on Time Using the SCOPES Model
SCOPES is a holistic model for organizing clinical and research information in the core areas of human functioning common to comprehensive neuropsychological assessments (e.g., Sutton, 2021).
S Self/ Self-Concept / Self-Identity / Self-Esteem
Beyond simply recalling events, we weave our experiences into coherent life stories. This narrative structure gives meaning to our past, influences our current self-concept, and guides how we imagine the future. Renowned work by McAdams (2001) emphasizes that narrative identity is central to understanding how we interpret and integrate our life events.
Self-esteem significantly shapes how individuals perceive the past, present, and future. Those with high self-esteem tend to recall past experiences more positively, focusing on achievements and personal growth, which bolsters a sense of continuity and self-worth (Lyubomirsky et al., 2006). In the present, high self-esteem is associated with a greater ability to engage in mindful and adaptive behaviors, promoting emotional well-being and a balanced perspective. Conversely, individuals with low self-esteem are more likely to ruminate on negative past experiences, leading to a less optimistic outlook on the present and future. This disparity underscores the influence of self-esteem on temporal outlooks, as it affects both retrospective appraisals and forward-looking aspirations.
Moreover, self-esteem can impact one's future time perspective by shaping goal-setting behaviors and resilience. High self-esteem individuals are more likely to exhibit a proactive and optimistic approach to future planning, as they possess confidence in their abilities to achieve goals (Orth et al., 2012). Conversely, those with low self-esteem may hesitate to invest in future endeavors due to fear of failure or self-doubt, which can limit their personal and professional growth. This interplay illustrates the integral role self-esteem plays in forming coherent and adaptive temporal perspectives.
C Cognition / Thinking and Mind
Memory structures and processes play a vital role in how individuals perceive and engage with the past, present, and future. Episodic memory, housed primarily in the hippocampus, enables the recall of personal past experiences and the organization of these memories into coherent narratives. This ability to reconstruct past events is essential for self-identity and informs our understanding of present contexts (Tulving, 2002). Additionally, working memory, associated with the prefrontal cortex, is instrumental in processing immediate information and making decisions based on past experiences. Together, these memory systems provide a framework that allows us to contextualize the present moment within our personal history.
Furthermore, the relationship between memory and future-oriented thinking is grounded in the concept of mental time travel. Research shows that the same brain regions involved in episodic memory—particularly the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex—are also active during prospection, or imagining future scenarios (Schacter et al., 2012). This suggests that our ability to envision the future relies on recombining past memories into new, hypothetical events. Such mental simulations aid in planning, goal-setting, and adaptive decision-making. The interplay between these memory processes highlights how temporal perspectives are inherently connected, allowing humans to seamlessly navigate time.
Under high cognitive load, people perceive time differently depending on whether they are aware they need to judge time (prospective) or not (retrospective). Prospective judgments tend to shorten perceived time, while retrospective judgments lengthen it (Block et al., 2010).
O Observable Behavior / Personality
Personality traits and behavior patterns significantly influence individuals' temporal perspectives, shaping how they engage with the past, present, and future. For instance, people high in neuroticism often exhibit a negative bias toward the past, as they tend to ruminate on unpleasant experiences. Conversely, individuals with high extraversion and openness are more likely to view the past positively, use it as a source of personal growth, and maintain an optimistic orientation toward the future (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Present-focused individuals, often associated with impulsivity or sensation-seeking behaviors, may prioritize immediate rewards over long-term goals, highlighting the relationship between personality traits like impulsiveness and temporal decision-making.
Future-oriented behavior is closely linked to conscientiousness, which reflects traits like self-discipline and goal-directed planning. Studies suggest that individuals high in conscientiousness are more likely to adopt a future-focused perspective, leveraging their ability to delay gratification to achieve long-term success (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Temporal perspectives also intersect with behavior patterns, as positive future orientation has been associated with proactive coping strategies and resilience (Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2004).
People with impulsive behavior tendencies perceive time as more costly, leading them to overestimate durations and undervalue delayed rewards (Wittmann & Paulus (2008).
P Physical / biological
The perception of time is a complex interplay of cognitive processes and brain regions. The prefrontal cortex plays a central role in time-related tasks such as planning and decision-making, while the basal ganglia and cerebellum are involved in motor timing and interval perception. Studies suggest that the hippocampus contributes to temporal memory and the organization of events in time (Suddendorf & Corballis, 2007). Additionally, the insular cortex has been linked to the subjective experience of time, such as how we perceive its passage under different emotional states (Craig, 2009). These processes are influenced by neurotransmitters like dopamine, which appears critical in the reward-based timing of events (Meck, 2005).
E Emotional / Feelings and Mood
Emotional arousal and valence (positive or negative emotions) can speed up or slow down our internal clock, altering how we perceive time. For instance, time seems to "fly" during enjoyable moments and "drag" during unpleasant ones. The study used internal-clock models to explain these effects (Droit-Volet & Meck, 2007).
As people age, they often remember past events with a more positive hue. According to socioemotional selectivity theory (Carstensen, Fung, & Charles, 2003), this shift occurs because older adults prioritize emotional well-being. They tend to downplay negative memories and emphasize those that bring positive feelings, helping to maintain a coherent and satisfying self-narrative.
S Social Context / Space and Time
Our social environment, including cultural norms and shared rituals, shapes our attitude toward time. In settings where schedules and punctuality are strictly observed, time may feel rigid and segmented. Conversely, in cultures with a more fluid approach to time, individuals might experience a greater sense of relaxed or “elastic” time Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999).
Environmental complexity and the density of sensory information have been shown to influence how we allocate attention and encode time. For example, high cognitive load or rapid shifts in sensory stimuli can alter time perception, making intervals feel longer or shorter (Block et al., 2010).
The amount and quality of light—and more generally, environmental cues like natural day–night cycles—play a crucial role in regulating our internal clocks. These factors influence our circadian rhythms, which in turn affect alertness and the subjective flow of time Reppert & Weaver, 2002).
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Post Author
Geoffrey W. Sutton, Professor Emeritus of Psychology at Evangel University, holds a master’s degree in counseling and a PhD in psychology from the University of Missouri-Columbia. His postdoctoral work encompassed education and supervision in forensic and neuropsychology. As a licensed psychologist, he conducted clinical and neuropsychological evaluations and provided psychotherapy for patients in various settings, including schools, hospitals, and private offices. During his tenure as a professor, Dr. Sutton taught courses on psychotherapy, assessment, and research. He has authored over one hundred publications, including books, book chapters, and articles in peer-reviewed psychology journals. His website is https://suttong.com
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