Hope Theory

C.R. Snyder and his colleagues are credited with the development of hope theory.  Goals are the key cognitive component of hope theory. Goals organize the mind’s processes leading to the achievement of a goal. Hope is a motivational state that arises from thoughts about pathways thinking and agency thinking in the pursuit of a goal.

Hope theory has two major components: Pathways Thinking, and Agentic Thinking. 

Pathways Thinking refers to a person’s thoughts about ways to reach a goal. True hope relies on a person’s ability to generate at least one realistic way to reach a goal. People with high levels of hope are skilled at finding more than one pathway to a goal.

Agency or Agentic Thinking is a strong belief in one’s capacity to reach a goal. The primary example of agency thinking is the statement, “I can do this.” This is especially true when some barrier arises.

Pathways thinking and agentic thinking interact to strengthen each other when a person’s mind is engaged in the process of sequencing action toward a goal.

Snyder and his colleagues developed measures of hope. See the Adult Hope Scale for more information including Snyder’s classic book on the Psychology of Hope.

Hope is a significant variable in the Psychology of Religion as well. For example, Christians focus on hope embodied in Jesus during Christmas and Easter.

Hope is also a significant contributor to positive outcomes in psychotherapy (Sutton, Kelly, Worthington, Griffin, & Dinwiddie, 2018).

C.R. Snyder (Charles Richard "Rick" Snyder) was a psychological scientist at the University of Kansas (1944-2006).

Links

Adult Hope Scale

The Paradox of Hope at Advent

References

Sutton, G. W., Jordan, K., & Worthington, E.L., Jr. (2014). Spirituality, hope, compassion, and forgiveness: Contributions of Pentecostal spirituality to godly love. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 33, 212-226

Sutton, G. W., Kelly, H., Worthington, E. L. Jr., Griffin, B. J., & Dinwiddie, C. (2018) Satisfaction with Christian psychotherapy and well-being: Contributions of hope, personality, and spirituality. Spirituality in Clinical Practice, 5 (1), 8-24. doi: 10.1037/scp0000145         Academia Link       ResearchGate Link

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Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

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Idiosyncrasy Credit

Idiosyncrasy Credit is a concept developed by Hollander (1958). Leaders earn idiosyncrasy credits from their followers based on perceptions of competence and group loyalty. These credits are an index of status. When a certain level of credits has been accumulated, leaders have some leeway to pursue group goals in ways that deviate from the group norms. This deviation from the norms ultimately requires that the leader deliver results.



Leaders lose status when they behave outside the accepted range of behavior. It is the boundaries of acceptable behavior that are proposed to vary with the amount of credits a leader has accumulated. A leader who operates on the boundaries of acceptable group behavior and consistently delivers desirable results, earns additional credits to operate within a wider range of deviation from group norms. Thus, the boundaries of what is acceptable are relaxed.

Leaders can earn idiosyncrasy credits by a long term adherence to group norms, demonstrating group oriented motivation, demonstrating competence, or being assigned to a high status role. Some leaders may "import" credits from external sources.

Idiosyncrasy credits is abbreviated as ISC and is referred to as ISC theory in some literature.

Leaders can also accumulate debts, which can lead to a loss of status and influence.

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References

Hollander, E. P. (1958). Conformity, status, and idiosyncrasy credit. Psychological
Review, 65, 117-127.

Provaznik, B., Hughes, L.W., & Avey, J.B. (2009). Pushing the margins: A dynamic model of idiosyncrasy credit in top management team. Journal of Business & Leadership: Research, Practice, and Teaching, 5, 2, 1-9. Link 

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Bathsheba Syndrome Psychology and Leadership

The Bathsheba Syndrome is the term applied to a cluster of features representing an impaired ability to cope with success presumably, leading to ethical violations. The term was used in 1993 by Dean Ludwig and Clinton Longenecker (J Business Ethics).

The term draws on the biblical story of the good King David who used his power to have a sexual relationship with Bathsheba. After she became pregnant, David attempted to get her husband to have intercourse with his wife, but he refused. David then sent him off to war with orders to place him in the front line "so he will be struck down and die." (2 Samuel 11).

According to the authors, many managers are not prepared for success. And the ethical training at the time was not effective. In their analyses, poorly prepared managers had the following conditions, which led to ethical problems.

1. They became complacent and became distracted from their work.

2. They had access to privileged information, people or objects (and presumably were not prepared to handle this privilege).

3. They had increasing control over their organization's resources.

4. They began to believe that their personalbility was linked to control over outcomes.


For a longer commentary on Bathsheba Syndrome and leadership failure, see Donelson Forsyth, 2011.

On the one hand, by 2019 standards, the labeling of the concept is sexist and perpetuates the men-as-leaders expectation. Also, by putting the focus on the woman as in "Bathsheba," the focus is unfairly diverted from what could be called the "King David Syndrome." On the other hand, given the commonality of male leaders sexually harassing female supervisees as evident in the #metoo reports.

I suggest another term. The "Leadership Entitlement Syndrome." Leaders, regardless of gender, need ways to manage success in the best interests of their organization. And many need structures to manage their sexuality.

For a consideration of sexuality and morality in Christian cultures, see A House Divided

Wisdom and Psychology

Wisdom is an ancient virtue often recorded in maxims and proverbs.

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Psychologists generally agree that wisdom is learned from experience rather than the explicit knowledge obtained from lectures and books.

Psychologist Robert J. Sternberg developed a balance theory of wisdom. Following is his definition.

The balance theory defines wisdom as the use of one’s intelligence, creativity, commone sense, and knowledge and as mediated by positive ethical values toward the achievement of a common good through a balance among (a) intrapersonal, (b) interpersonal, and (c) extrapersonal interests, over the (a) short and (b) long terms to achieve a balance among (a) adaptation to existing environments, (b) shaping of existing environments, and (c) selection of new environments. (Sternberg, n.d.)

Haidt explains that wise people balance their own needs and the needs of others both in the present and in the future. He also comments on those without wisdom, 

"Ignorant people see everything in black and white--they rely heavily on the myth of pure evil--and they are strongly influenced by their own self-interest (Haidt, 2006, pp. 152-153)."

Se also, How To Measure Wisdom

Haidt, J. (2006). The happiness hypothesis: Finding modern truth in ancient wisdom. Cambridge, MA: Basic books.

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