Consciousness in psychology

 

Consciousness is a person’s awareness of oneself and one’s context. This subjective state is studied scientifically by searching for brain activity correlated with the experience of consciousness.

Clinically, consciousness is experienced in terms of the common cognitive-behavioral triad (Affective, Behavior, Cognition or ABC) and two contexts. The internal context of physiological processes and the external context of social space and time. Briefly, consciousness includes thoughts, feelings, and action patterns contextualized by physiological processes of which we are sometimes aware and an external social space-time context such as where and when an experience occurs and who and what were prominent features in that context. These components of the psychological self are summarized elsewhere in the SCOPES model of functioning.

Consciousness is an emergent property of brains. Researchers have looked for the Neuronal Correlates of Consciousness (NCCs). The entire brain is an NCC but we do not appear to be aware of the basic processes that capture audio or visual stimuli. Brain imagery research suggests the proximal source of consciousness lies within the posterior part of the cortex called the hot zone. Electrical stimulation of cortical tissue in the hot zone elicits reports of flashing lights, shapes, distorted faces, feelings, urges, and hallucinations. The removal of parts of the posterior cortex has resulted in losses of selective consciousness such as an awareness of motion, color, or space.

Measurement

A technique called zap and zip allows neuroscientists to send a pulse of energy to the brain and measure activity using EEG sensors. The results were zipped like a computer zip file. Analysis yielded an index (perturbational complexity index) that has distinguished between consciousness in patients unable to communicate and those who were unconscious—a vegetative state.

Two Approaches to Understanding Consciousness

Global Neuronal Workspace (GNW)

GNW is associated with the work of psychologist Bernard J. Baars and neuroscientists Stanislas Dehaene and Jean-Pierre Changeaux. The idea is that when our brains process a stimulus, many of the brain’s cognitive subsystems access the information. Theoretically, a neural network in the frontal and parietal lobes is activated and the information enters consciousness. In contrast, unconscious processes occur when people carry out automatic behavior like walking while talking on their mobile phones.

 

Integrated Information Theory (IIT)

IIT was developed by Giulio Tononi and others. The focus is on the processing of whole experience scenarios analogous to a video clip. Consciousness of experience is quantified from zero as unconscious with higher numbers representing a more complex integration of information. The quantitative index is phi. The zap-zip meter estimates phi.

Status of Theories

At this point there is no acceptable theory explaining consciousness. This may be in part because of the subjectivity of the experience we call consciousness. Schurger et al. (2022) offer a critique of extant theories, which they view as descriptions of activity rather than an explanation. These authors suggest Attention Schema Theory (AST) as a possible candidate for a scientific theory. AST has been criticized as not explaining consciousness. A quote from the authors may help:

Consciousness, according to AST, is a special kind of percept that arises due to the workings of a hypothetical mechanism called an ‘attention schema’. The attention schema helps to guide, stabilize, and control selective attention, and having an attention scheme can lead to an adamant belief in an ineffable something extra that we might call qualia.

  

 

 

References

Koch, C. (2018, May 9). What is consciousness? Nature. Retrieved from https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-05097-x

Neuroscience News (2023, May 20). Unlocking the mind: The neuroscience behind our conscious reality. Neuroscience News. Retrieved from https://neurosciencenews.com/consciousness-neuroscience-23299/

Schurger, A. & Graziano, M. (2022). Consciousness explained or described?, Neuroscience of Consciousness, 1, niac001, https://doi.org/10.1093/nc/niac001

 Sutton, G. W. (2024, March 3). Consciousness in psychology. Psychology Concepts and Theories. Retrieved from https://suttonpsychology.blogspot.com/2024/03/consciousness-in-psychology.html

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

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Kinetic depth effect in psychology

 

Thinking 3D

"The kinetic-depth effect (KDE) is the perception of the three-dimensional structure of a scene resulting from a rotating motion." (Bista et al., 2016)

References

Bista, S., da Cunha, Í.L.L. & Varshney, A. Kinetic depth images: flexible generation of depth perception. Vis Comput 33, 1357–1369 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00371-016-1231-2

Wallach, H., & O'Connell, D. N. (1953). The kinetic depth effect. Journal of experimental psychology, 45(4), 205–217. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0056880 Link Wallach (1953) The kinetic depth effect (free.fr)

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

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Fan effect in psychology

Which fruit was it? 2023
Geoffrey W. Sutton & Bing AI

 The fan effect refers to a pattern of multiple associations in memory that make it more difficult to recall concepts that have multiple associations compared to those with fewer associations.

The effect is measured by increased response time and error rates for recall tasks.

The effect is credited to psychological scientist John Anderson.

References

Anderson, J. R. (1974). Retrieval of propositional information from long-term memory. Cognitive Psychology, 6(4), 451–474. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(74)90021-8

Anderson, J. R., & Reder, L. M. (1999). The fan effect: New results and new theories. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 128(2), 186–197. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.128.2.186

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

See Geoffrey Sutton’s books on   AMAZON       or  GOOGLE STORE

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Serial position effect in psychology

Learning 2023

The serial position effect refers to the tendency of people to remember the first and last items in a list better than the middle items. 

There are two related effects.

1. The primacy effect is the enhanced memory for the first few items in a list.

Earlier items may be remembered well because of the time for more rehearsal and encoding of these items into long-term memory.

2. The recency effect is the enhanced memory for the last few items in a list. These may be recalled more easily if they are stored in short-term memory. 

It is easier to forget the middle items in a list compared to the early and more recent items due to less processing of the information.

The serial position effect was first discovered by Hermann Ebbinghaus, a German psychologist who studied his ability to remember syllables. His work has led to variations on memory tasks such as memory for words and pictures.

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

See Geoffrey Sutton’s books on   AMAZON       or  GOOGLE STORE

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Spacing effect in psychology

  

The spacing effect in psychology is an observed effect of better memory for studied material when learning sessions are separated into several short times separated by breaks (distributed practice) in contrast to a long study session (massed practice).

Also called: the distributed-practice effect

Example

 A student preparing for a French vocabulary test will likely more by studying the French words during brief sessions each day before the test instead of  one long session on one day.

The spacing effect has been demonstrated with a wide range of learning paradigms, materials, and participants, but the precise mechanisms underlying it remain unclear.

There are several theories to explain the reliable finding.

Consolidation theory- new presentations create new representations of the studied items

Deficient processing theory- attention is aroused more in short sessions because the material is presented anew and not residing in memory

Encoding variability theory- Multiple sessions add more context cues stored with the studied material, which improves cognitive pathways to the contents.

Study-phase retrieval theory- when studying again, people notice the item and in effect, practice retrieval

 

 

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

See Geoffrey Sutton’s books on   AMAZON       or  GOOGLE STORE

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Lazarus effect / phenomenon

The Lazarus Effect or Lazarus Phenomenon is a person's return to life after they were declared dead.

According to the Smithsonian, perhaps one third of those who return to life make a complete recovery.

The effect is named for Lazarus of Bethany brought back to life in response to a command from his friend Jesus (John 11).

Researchers have found published reports of the phenomenon, which is also called spontaneous resuscitation. Physician surveys have documented the Lazarus Effect at a fairly high level of frequency but others are sceptical.

From the perspective of clinical psychology, it is easy to see why people were so afraid of being buried alive in the past and arranged for "safety coffins" that allowed for air intake and ways to notify people if they were trapped inside such as bells and flags. The fear is called taphophobia.

From the perspective of moral psychology, emotional responses can influence decisions about how long people wait until allowing a perceived dead person to be maintained on life support. Another consideration is the time frame for removing donated organs.

References

Adhiyaman, V., Adhiyaman, S., & Sundaram, R. (2007). The Lazarus phenomenon. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 100(12), 552–557. https://doi.org/10.1177/0141076807100012013

Braun P., Herff H., Paal P. (2011). The Lazarus phenomenon-false positive death certifications and auto-resuscitation cases covered in lay press. Resuscitation, 82, 1363-1364

Bray, J.G. (1993). The Lazarus Phenomenon Revisited. Anesthesiology 78:, 991 doi: https://doi.org/10.1097/00000542-199305000-00030

Gerard, D., Vaux, J. Boche, T., Chollet-Xemard, C., & Marty, J. (2013). Lazarus phenomenon: Knowledge, attitude and practice, Resuscitation, 84,12, 153, ISSN 0300-9572, 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resuscitation.2013.07.030.

Hornby, K., Hornby, L., & Shemie, S. D. (2010). A systematic review of autoresuscitation after cardiac arrest. Critical care medicine, 38(5), 1246–1253. https://doi.org/10.1097/CCM.0b013e3181d8caaa

Image: The Resurrection of Lazarus by Duccio di Buoninsegna (1308 - 1311)

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

See Geoffrey Sutton’s books on   AMAZON       or  GOOGLE STORE

Follow on    FACEBOOK   Geoff W. Sutton    

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Neurodivergent Neurodiversity

Neurodivergent is a broad term people use to describe behavior that stands out as different from what is typical in a culture. The assumption is that the behavior and attendant cognitive and emotional processes originate in brains that are different from those of most people.

Neurodivergent functions as an indicator of self-identity ("I'm neurodivergent") and contrasts with people who are deemed neurotypical.

Neurodiversity refers to variations in brain-linked behavior, cognition, and emotion. In recent years, neurodiversity various neuropsychological conditions such as those in the following list.

Attention Deficit Disorders

Autistic disorder (Autistic Spectrum Disorder)

Learning disorders (Learning Disabilities)

Historic note

Sociologist Judy Singer used the term neurodiversity in her 1998 thesis at the University of Technology, Sydney, Australia.

General Implications

Because the term neurodivergent is so broad, the implication for people in various social contexts (relationships, education, work, and family dynamics) will vary considerably with their pattern of strengths and weaknesses and the demands of their social context. For example, a person with an Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity but above average reading skills has different needs in their various social contexts than those with a severe reading disorder (aka dyslexia). 

To state the obvious, knowing that two people have a diagnosis of autistic disorder does not indicate that they have the same pattern of strengths and weaknesses.

An Example

Joanna French (2023) offers a look at her neurodivergence in a social context with church friends. She hid her behavior patterns to "Be normal, or suffer consequences like being bullied or even beaten." But now she feels comfortable in her church setting: "...I realized today how much more I have just been me in front of our church family. I have wiggled, rocked, tapped, and bounced."

Neurodiversity and Disability

A person who identifies as neurodivergent may or may not have a disability according to the laws and policies governing people where they live.

Societies use the term disability in different ways. In the United States, laws and policies define the criteria for disabilities in education and work. Available services, benefits, and accommodations will vary according to the diagnosis of a listed disability and how well a person functions with treatment.

Cite this post

Sutton, G. W. (2023, January 12). Neurodivergent. Psychology Concepts and Theories. Retrieved from   neurodiversity. https://suttonpsychology.blogspot.com/2023/01/neurodivergent-neurodiversity.html 

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

See Geoffrey Sutton’s books on   AMAZON       or  GOOGLE STORE

Follow on    FACEBOOK   Geoff W. Sutton    

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Dr. Sutton’s posts are for educational purposes only. See a licensed mental health provider for diagnoses, treatment, and consultation.

cryptomnesia

 

Cryptomnesia is a memory problem in which people misattribute their thoughts or ideas as new when they are really memories. This can produce inadvertent plagiarism--including plagiarizing their own previously published ideas.

#self-plagiarism #cryptomnesia

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Memory misattributions

 

Memory misattribution can occur when features of different events are bound together in one memory. Also, imagined events or events that were just considered may be remembered as if they actually occurred.

Researchers have demonstrated that when people imagine seeing something or imagine carrying out an action, some report that they actually saw the object or performed the action.

Some older adults had difficulties with details of a similar shape. In one study they confused details of two round shapes-lollipop and magnifying glass.

Misattributions and memory conjunction or binding errors can be the result of problems of retrieval. This has been seen in patients with frontal lobe damage.

In cryptomnesia, people misattribute thoughts or ideas as new when they are really memories. This can produce inadvertent plagiarism--including plagiarizing their own previously published ideas.

Déjà vu also appears to be a problem of misattribution when features of a new experience seem familiar as if we have been to a new place or had the new experience before.

See Schacter, 2021

Resource

Schachter, D. L. (2021). The seven sins of memory: How the mind forgets and remembers. Updated Edition. New York: Mariner. Link to Book

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memory binding

 Memory binding is the association of event features into one memory. Failures can result in misattributions when features of different events are bound together.

The hippocampus appears to important to memory binding. Disruptions can produce conjunction errors.

Resource

Schachter, D. L. (2021). The seven sins of memory: How the mind forgets and remembers. Updated Edition. New York: Mariner. Link to Book

Please check out my website   www.suttong.com

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Blocking & Tip of the Tongue Memory Failure

Blocking problems refer to the failure to recall something from memory. Researchers find that blocking on name recall is the most common problem.

Baker/baker paradox

People recall a person's occupation more easily than they recall a person's name. A study using the name Baker  and occupation of baker provides evidence for the difficulty and is known as the Baker/baker paradox.

A case study of a patient named LS revealed severe blocking on people's names following brain damage. The condition seen in others is now called proper-name anomia. The available research in 2021 suggests the problem is in the left cerebral hemisphere--possibly the left temporal lobe.

Tip of the Tongue (TOT)

One common blocking problem is the failure to recall accompanied by a sense that the name of a person or thing is on the "Tip of the Tongue(TOT)." The classic study known to psychology students is Roger Brown and David McNeill (1966). They found that recalling the first letter is the most common "hint" that the name is present in memory but cannot be completely recalled. [As an aside, I recalled the Brown & McNeill association with Tip of the Tongue but I got the date wrong as I found when double checking my reference.]

Some efforts at recall can prolong the blocking of TOTs. In general, TOTs resolve in about a minute.

Stress appears to increase the frequency of TOTs. You may observe this during televised debates.

Resource

Schachter, D. L. (2021). The seven sins of memory: How the mind forgets and remembers. Updated Edition. New York: Mariner. Link to Book

Key terms

#blocking #tiptofthetongue

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mind wandering and memory

Mind wandering is a common phenomenon that interferes with remembering information when reading or from a lecture. People commonly refer to the experience as "zoning out."

The frequency of mind wandering increases with the length of a presentation. Researchers have found that stopping a presentation and asking a question significantly reduces mind wandering.

change blindness

 Change blindness is the failure to detect a change in a situation.

A classic study is one by Daniel Simons and Chris Chabris. They asked participants to track the passes of a ball. About half the viewers of the video did not notice the gorilla in the room. Thus, by focusing on the ball, the people were blind to a significant change in the scene.

This concept has also been called inattentional blindness

Reference

Simons, D. J., & Chabris, C. F. (1999). Gorillas in our midst: Sustained inattentional blindness for dynamic events. Perception, 28(9), 1059-1074.

See the gorilla video on YouTube

Please check out my website   www.suttong.com

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