Psychosexual Development
Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud's theory of psychosexual development suggests that children pass through a series of stages centered on erogenous zones.
Here are the stages:
Oral Stage (0-1 year):
Erogenous Zone: Mouth
Focus: Sucking, biting, and breastfeeding.
Key Conflict: Weaning from breastfeeding or bottle-feeding.
Outcome: Fixation can result in oral activities in adulthood, such as smoking, overeating, or nail-biting.
Anal Stage (1-3 years):
Erogenous Zone: Bowel and bladder control
Focus: Controlling bladder and bowel movements.
Key Conflict: Toilet training.
Outcome: Fixation can lead to an anal-retentive personality (obsessiveness, perfectionism) or an anal-expulsive personality (messiness, destructiveness).
Phallic Stage (3-6 years):
Erogenous Zone: Genitals
Focus: Discovering differences between males and females.
Key Conflict: Oedipus complex (boys) and Electra complex (girls).
Outcome: Fixation can result in problems with authority and relationships.
Latency Stage (6-puberty):
Erogenous Zone: Dormant sexual feelings
Focus: Developing social skills, hobbies, and interests.
Key Conflict: None, as sexual feelings are suppressed.
Outcome: Successful navigation leads to the development of communication and self-confidence.
Genital Stage (puberty-adulthood):
Erogenous Zone: Maturing sexual interests
Focus: Establishing mature sexual relationships.
Key Conflict: Balancing sexual desires with responsibilities.
Outcome: Successful navigation leads to well-adjusted, healthy adults capable of love and work.
Two Complexes
The Oedipus Complex and the Electra Complex are significant in Freud's theory of psychosexual development. Here's a closer look at both:
Oedipus Complex
Definition: The Oedipus Complex occurs during the phallic stage of psychosexual development (ages 3-6). It involves a child's unconscious sexual desire for the opposite-sex parent and feelings of jealousy and rivalry toward the same-sex parent.
For Boys: Freud theorized that boys experience the Oedipus Complex by developing unconscious desires for their mothers and viewing their fathers as rivals for their mother's attention and affection. This can lead to feelings of hostility and jealousy towards the father.
Resolution: The complex is resolved when the boy begins to identify with his father, internalizing his father's values and norms, which helps in the development of the superego (the moral component of personality).
Electra Complex
Definition: The Electra Complex is the counterpart to the Oedipus Complex for girls and was later developed by Carl Jung. Although not extensively elaborated by Freud, it describes a girl's psychosexual competition with her mother for possession of her father.
For Girls: Freud suggested that girls experience "penis envy," where they desire their fathers and resent their mothers for not providing them with a penis. This desire creates a rivalry with the mother.
Resolution: The complex is resolved when the girl starts to identify with her mother and internalizes her mother's values, which helps in the development of the superego.
Relevance in Modern Psychology
While these complexes are considered foundational in psychoanalytic theory, many aspects have been criticized or revised in contemporary psychology. However, the general idea that early family dynamics and unconscious processes influence personality development remains influential.
Modern therapy often explores early relationships and conflicts, even if the specifics of Freud's complexes are not emphasized.
Criticisms
Freud's psychosexual stages of development have been subject to numerous specific criticisms over the years. Here are some of the key points of contention:
Overemphasis on Sexuality: Critics argue that Freud's theory places too much emphasis on sexual drives as the primary motivators of human behavior. They believe that many other factors, such as social, cultural, and cognitive influences, play equally significant roles in development (Eagle, 2007).
Unfalsifiability: Freud's theories are often criticized for being unfalsifiable, meaning that they cannot be tested or proven wrong. This lack of empirical evidence makes it difficult to validate his concepts through scientific research (Popper, 1959).
Gender Bias: Freud's theories have been criticized for being gender-biased. Concepts like "penis envy" and the Oedipus complex are seen as reflecting a male-centered perspective and have been challenged by feminist scholars (Chodorow, 1991).
Cultural Bias: Freud developed his theories based on observations of a specific cultural group (Viennese upper-middle-class society). As a result, his theories may not be universally applicable and can be seen as culturally biased (Eagle, 2007).
Deterministic Outlook: Freud's psychosexual stages suggest that early childhood experiences determine adult personality and behavior, leaving little room for change or the influence of later life experiences. Critics argue that this deterministic view oversimplifies human development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).
Methodological Issues: Freud's research methods, including the reliance on case studies and subjective interpretations, have been criticized for lacking scientific rigor. His conclusions were often based on small, non-representative samples (Grünbaum, 1984).
Negative View of Human Nature: Freud's theory is often seen as presenting a pessimistic view of human nature, focusing on internal conflicts and negative impulses rather than positive growth and development (Maslow, 1968).
References
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press.
Chodorow, N. J. (1991). Feminism and psychoanalytic theory. Yale University Press.
Eagle, M. N. (2007). Psychoanalysis and its critics. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 24(1), 10-24. https://doi.org/10.1037/0736-9735.24.1.10
Freud, S. (1905). Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality. In J. Strachey (Ed. & Trans.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 7, pp. 123-243). Hogarth Press.
Freud, S. (1920). Beyond the Pleasure Principle. In J. Strachey (Ed. & Trans.), The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 18, pp. 1-64). Hogarth Press.
Grünbaum, A. (1984). The foundations of psychoanalysis: A philosophical critique. University of California Press.
Maslow, A. H. (1968). Toward a psychology of being. Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Popper, K. (1959). The logic of scientific discovery. Hutchinson & Co.
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Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is www.suttong.com
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