PSYCHOLOGY Concepts and Theories: anxiety

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Saturday, March 15, 2025

Phobias A to Z

Common Fears 2025 by
Geoffrey W Sutton & Artspace.ai

Phobias A to Z

A phobia is an anxiety disorder characterized by an intense, irrational, and persistent fear of a specific object, situation, or activity. This fear often leads to avoidance behaviors and significant distress, even when the perceived threat poses little or no actual danger. Phobias can interfere with daily functioning and are typically categorized into specific phobias (e.g., fear of spiders or heights), social anxiety disorder (fear of social situations), and agoraphobia (fear of open or crowded spaces).

For diagnosis and treatment options, contact a mental health professional. Treatments vary. Common treatments include Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy, Exposure Therapy, Relaxation training and sometimes medication.

This post is for educational purposes and not for diagnosis or treatment.

A List of Phobias

Ablutophobia: Fear of bathing or washing

Achluophobia: Fear of darkness

Acrophobia: Fear of heights

Aerophobia: Fear of flying

Agoraphobia: Fear of open spaces or crowds

Aichmophobia: Fear of needles or pointed objects

Alethophobia: Fear of the facts or truth

Algophobia: Fear of pain

Amaxophobia: Fear of riding in a car

Androphobia: Fear of men

Anemophobia: Fear of air

Anginophobia: Fear of angina or choking

Angrophobia: Fear of anger

Anthrophobia: Fear of flowers

Anthropophobia: Fear of people

Apeirophobia: Fear of infinity or eternity

Aphenphosmphobia: Fear of being touched

Aquaphobia: Fear of water

Arachibutyrophobia: Fear of peanut butter

Arachnophobia: Fear of spiders

Arithmophobia: Fear of numbers

Astraphobia: Fear of thunder and lightning

Astrophobia: Fear of space (the universe)

Ataxophobia: Fear of disorder or an untidy setting

Atelophobia: Fear of imperfection

Athazagoraphobia: Fear of being forgotten, being ignored or replaced

Atychiphobia: Fear of failure

Automatonophobia: Fear of human-like figures

Autophobia: Fear of being alone

Bacteriophobia: Fear of bacteria

Barophobia: Fear of gravity

Batophobia: Fear of being in a very tall building

Bathmophobia: Fear of stairs or steep slopes

Batrachophobia: Fear of amphibians

Belonephobia: Fear of pins and needles

Bibliophobia: Fear of books

Bogyphobia: Fear of the supernatural

Botanophobia: Fear of plants

Bromidrophobia: Fear of smelling bad

Brumotactillophobia: Fear of food touching food

Cacophobia: Fear of ugliness

Carnophobia: Fear of meat

Catagelophobia: Fear of being ridiculed

Catoptrophobia: Fear of mirrors

Cellophobia: Fear of being unable to call someone

Chionophobia: Fear of snow

Chloephobia: Fear of newspapers (seeing, touching, smelling them)

Chrometophobia: Fear of spending money

Chromophobia: Fear of colors

Chronomentrophobia: Fear of clocks

Chronophobia: Fear of time

Chorophobia: Fear of dancing

Cibophobia: Fear of food possibly due to a traumatic experience such as choking or an allergic reaction

Claustrophobia: Fear of confined spaces

Cleithrophobia: Fear of being trapped

Climacophobia: Fear of climbing- often related to acrophobia

Coitophobia: Fear of sexual intercourse or sexual activity

Coulrophobia: Fear of clowns

Cyberphobia: Fear of computers

Cymophobia: Fear of waves such as ocean waves

Cynophobia: Fear of dogs

Daemonophobia: Fear of demons

Decidophobia: Fear of making decisions

Dementophobia: Fear of madness or insanity

Demophobia: Fear of crowds

Dendrophobia: Fear of trees

Dentophobia: Fear of dentists

Domatophobia: Fear of houses

Dysmorphophobia: Fear of deformity

Dystychiphobia: Fear of accidents

Ecclesiophobia: Fear of religious iconography or churches

Ecophobia: Fear of the home

Elurophobia: Fear of cats

Emetophobia: Fear of vomiting

Enochlophobia: Fear of crowds

Entomophobia: Fear of insects

Ephebiphobia: Fear of teenagers

Erotophobia: Fear of sex

Estigiophobia: Fear of hell

Equinophobia: Fear of horses

Frigophobia: Fear of cold or cold things

Gamophobia: Fear of marriage

Gephyrophobia: Fear of crossing bridges

Genophobia: Fear of sexual intercourse

Genuphobia: Fear of knees

Globophobia: Fear of balloons- especially popping (including seeing, touching, smelling them)

Glossophobia: Fear of speaking in public

Gnosiophobia: Fear of knowledge

Graphophobia: Fear of writing

Gynophobia: Fear of women

Hadephobia (also Stygiophobia): Fear of hell associated with religious punishment

Hagiophobia: Fear of religious saints

Hamartanophobia: Fear of sin

Haphephobia: Fear of touch

Heliophobia: Fear of the sun

Hemophobia: Fear of blood

Herpetophobia: Fear of reptiles

Hexakosioihexekontahexaphobia: Fear of the number 666

Hierophobia: Fear of priests

Hippopotomonstrosesquipedaliophobia: Fear of long words

Hydrophobia: Fear of water

Hypochondria: Fear of illness

Iatrophobia: Fear of doctors

Ichthyophobia: Fear of fish

Ideophobia: Fear of ideas or reason

Insectophobia: Fear of insects

Kenophobia: Fear of empty spaces also called horror vacui (Latin)

Kinesophobia: Fear of movement of being too active

Kleptophobia: Fear of being robbed or stealing

Koinophobia: Fear of having a common or ordinary, insignificant life

Koinoniphobia: Fear of rooms full of people

Koumpounophobia: Fear of buttons

Lethophobia: Fear of oblivion

Leukophobia: Fear of the color white

Lilapsophobia: Fear of tornadoes and hurricanes

Lockiophobia: Fear of childbirth

Logophobia: Fear of words or speech

Lygophobia: Fear of darkness

Mageirocophobia: Fear of cooking

Megalophobia: Fear of large things

Maieusiophobia: Fear of childbirth

Melanophobia: Fear of the color black

Microphobia: Fear of small things

Motorphobia (also Ochophobia): Fear of cars-including thinking about or being near cars

Musophobia: Fear of mice or rats

Mysophobia: Fear of dirt and germs

Necrophobia: Fear of death or dead things

Neophobia: Fear of new experiences or things

Noctiphobia: Fear of the night

Nomophobia: Fear of being without your mobile phone

Nosocomephobia: Fear of hospitals

Nosophobia: Fear of disease- especially life-threatening

Numerophobia: Fear of numbers

Nyctophobia: Fear of the dark

Obesophobia: Fear of gaining weight

Ochophobia: Fear of cars-including thinking about or being near cars (also motorphobia)

Octophobia: Fear of the figure 8

Ombrophobia: Fear of rain

Ommetaphobia: Fear of eyes

Omniphobia: Fear of vague or unidentified evil

Ophidiophobia: Fear of snakes

Ornithophobia: Fear of birds

Osmophobia: Fear of smells

Ostraconophobia: Fear of shellfish

Panphobia: Fear of vague or unidentified evil

Pantophobia: Fear of an unknown evil

Papyrophobia: Fear of paper

Paraphobia: Fear of sexual perversion

Parturiphobia: Fear of childbirth

Pathophobia: Fear of disease

Pediophobia: Fear of dolls and similar figures

Pedophobia: Fear of children

Pendulaphobia: Fear of swinging objects like a pendulum

Pentaphobia: Fear of the number 5

Peniaphobia: Fear of poverty

Phasmophobia: Fear of ghosts

Philematophobia: Fear of kissing

Philophobia: Fear of love

Pittakionophobia: Fear of sticky labels or stickers

Phobophobia: Fear of phobias

Plutophobia: Fear of wealth

Podophobia: Fear of feet

Porphyrophobia: Fear of the color purple

Pteridophobia: Fear of ferns

Pteromerhanophobia: Fear of flying

Pyrophobia: Fear of fire

Quintaphobia: Fear of the number five.

Radiophobia: Fear of radiation or X-rays

Religiophobia: Fear of religion or religious people and organizations

Sacrophobia: Fear of sacred objects

Samhainophobia: Fear of Halloween

Satanophobia: Fear of the devil or Satan

Sesquipedalophobia: Fear of long words

Scolionophobia: Fear of school

Scoptophobia: Fear of being stared at

Selenophobia: Fear of the moon

Siderodromophobia: Fear of trains

Sociophobia: Fear of social evaluation

Somniphobia: Fear of sleep

Stavrophobia: Fear of the sign of the Christian cross

Stygiophobia: Fear of hell associated with religious punishment (also hadephobia)

Tachophobia: Fear of speed

Taphophobia: Fear of being buried alive.

Technophobia: Fear of technology

Telephobia: Fear of phone calls (calling or receiving)

Teraphobia: Fear of monsters

Thalassophobia: Fear of large bodies of water or drowning

Theophobia: Fear of God or religion

Trichophobia: Fear of hair

Tokophobia: Fear of pregnancy and childbirth

Tomophobia: Fear of a medical procedure

Tonitrophobia: Fear of thunder

Trichopathophobia: Fear of hair disease

Trypanophobia: Fear of needles/injections

Trypophobia: Fear of holes

Uranophobia: Fear of heaven or the sky

Venustraphobia: Fear of beautiful women

Verminophobia: Fear of germs

Vestiphobia: Fear of clothing

Wiccaphobia: Fear of witches and witchcraft

Xanthophobia: Fear of the color yellow

Xenophobia: Fear of strangers or foreigners

Yenophobia: Fear of the color yellow

Zoophobia: Fear of animals

Zuigerphobia: Fear of vacuum cleaners including seeing and hearing them

References

Winerman, L. (2005). Figuring out phobia. Monitor on Psychology, 36(7), 96. This article explores the neurobiological underpinnings of phobias and their treatment. Retrieved from APA.

Curtis, G., Magee, W. J., Eaton, W. W., Wittchen, H.-U., & Kessler, R. C. (1998). Specific fears and phobias: Epidemiology and classification. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 173(3), 212-217. This study evaluates the prevalence and classification of specific phobias. Retrieved from Cambridge Core.

Milliner, E. L., & Farrell, L. J. (2014). Intensive cognitive-behavioral treatment for specific phobia in children and adolescents. Psychopathology Review, 1(1), 175-181. This review examines cognitive-behavioral treatments for childhood phobias. Retrieved from SAGE Journals.

Post Author

Geoffrey W. Sutton, Professor Emeritus of Psychology at Evangel University, holds a master’s degree in counseling and a PhD in psychology from the University of Missouri-Columbia. His postdoctoral work encompassed education and supervision in forensic and neuropsychology. As a licensed psychologist, he conducted clinical and neuropsychological evaluations and provided psychotherapy for patients in various settings, including schools, hospitals, and private offices. During his tenure as a professor, Dr. Sutton taught courses on psychotherapy, assessment, and research. He has authored over one hundred publications, including books, book chapters, and articles in peer-reviewed psychology journals. His website is https://suttong.com

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Anxiety and Psychology

Anxiety is a natural response to stress, characterized by feelings of worry, fear, or unease. While occasional anxiety is normal, persistent or excessive anxiety can interfere with daily life and may indicate an anxiety disorder. Symptoms often include restlessness, rapid heartbeat, difficulty concentrating, and physical discomfort.

Types of Anxiety

There are several types of anxiety disorders, including:

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): Persistent and excessive worry about various aspects of life.

Social Anxiety Disorder: Intense fear of social situations and being judged.

Panic Disorder: Recurrent panic attacks with physical symptoms like chest pain and shortness of breath.

Agoraphobia: Fear of places or situations where escape might be difficult.

Separation Anxiety Disorder: Fear of being apart from loved ones.

Anxiety and Fear Compared

Anxiety and fear are closely related but may be distinct emotional responses. Both are part of our body's natural defense mechanism, but they differ in their triggers and how they manifest.

Fear is an immediate reaction to a clear and present danger. It's often acute, instinctual, and specific, like the fear of encountering a snake or being in a dangerous situation. Fear triggers the "fight-or-flight" response, preparing the body to respond to a real threat.
Anxiety, on the other hand, is more anticipatory and future-oriented. It arises from the possibility of danger, not necessarily its immediate presence. For instance, worrying about a speech you'll give next week or imagining a worst-case scenario are examples of anxiety. It tends to linger longer than fear and is often less specific, making it feel pervasive.

The two overlap because anxiety can sometimes arise as a result of fear, especially if past experiences have heightened sensitivity to certain triggers. While fear serves an evolutionary purpose to protect us from immediate harm, anxiety—when managed appropriately—can help us prepare for future challenges. However, chronic anxiety, unlike fear, can become debilitating if it persists without an actual threat.

Anxiety in the SCOPES Model of Analysis

The SCOPES model organizes psychological information for the purposes of research, clinical diagnoses, and treatment planning (Sutton, 2021). Following are some features of some types of anxiety associated with the holistic SCOPES model.

S Self

Negative self-evaluation or self-criticism.

Self-concept includes inadequacy or unworthiness

Self-concept includes a sense of failure

Self-doubting one’s abilities or decisions.

Self-evaluation by comparing oneself unfavorably to others.

C Cognition: Thoughts

Persistent worry or fear.

Difficulty concentrating or focusing.

Racing thoughts or overthinking.

Catastrophizing (expecting the worst).

Intrusive or obsessive thoughts.

E Emotions: Feelings

Overwhelming sense of dread or panic.

Irritability or restlessness.

Feeling on edge or tense.

Emotional numbness or detachment.

Feeling helpless or out of control.

O Observable Behavior or Personality Patterns

Avoidance of feared situations or activities.

Compulsive behaviors (e.g., repetitive actions to reduce anxiety).

Procrastination or indecision.

Seeking constant reassurance from others.

Difficulty completing tasks due to distraction.

P Physical or Biological

Rapid heartbeat or palpitations.

Shortness of breath or hyperventilation.

Sweating or trembling.

Muscle tension or aches.

Fatigue or exhaustion.

Gastrointestinal issues (e.g., nausea, diarrhea).

Sleep disturbances (e.g., insomnia or nightmares).

S Social Context

Withdrawal from social interactions.

Difficulty maintaining conversations or relationships.

Fear of judgment or embarrassment in social settings.

Avoidance of group activities or gatherings.

Overdependence on close friends or family for support.

Recent Journal Article

A recent review article titled "Anxiety Disorders: A Review" by Szuhany and Simon (2022) discusses the prevalence, symptoms, and treatments of anxiety disorders. It highlights that anxiety disorders affect approximately 34% of adults in the U.S. during their lifetime. The review emphasizes the effectiveness of treatments like Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and medications such as SSRIs and SNRIs. It also discusses the importance of personalized treatment plans based on individual needs.

References

Sutton, G. W. (2021). Creating surveys: Second Edition| How to create and administer surveys, evaluate workshops & seminars, interpret and present results. Sunflower.

Szuhany, K. L., & Simon, N. M. (2022). Anxiety disorders: A review. JAMA, 328(24), 2431–2445. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2022.22744

Resources

https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/anxiety/symptoms-causes/syc-20350961

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Intimidation in Psychology

The Psychology of Intimidation

Intimidation is a psychological tactic often used to assert dominance or control over others. It involves behaviors or actions that evoke fear, anxiety, or submission in the target. Intimidation can manifest in various forms, such as physical presence, verbal threats, or manipulative tactics. It is often rooted in power dynamics and can trigger a fight-or-flight response in individuals. Understanding intimidation requires examining its impact on social interactions, self-esteem, and emotional well-being.

Scroll down to read more.

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Cite this post

Sutton, G. S. (2025). The psychology of intimidation. Psychology Concepts and Theories. https://suttonpsychology.blogspot.com/2025/03/intimidation-in-psychology.html

***

Forms of Intimidation

Verbal Abuse

Verbal abuse is a form of intimidation that uses words to exert control, instill fear, or demean another person. It often involves shouting, insults, threats, or manipulative language designed to undermine the target's confidence and self-esteem. This type of abuse can have long-lasting psychological effects, including anxiety, depression, and trauma, as it taps into the emotional vulnerabilities of the individual.

Here is a relevant journal article titled "Verbal Abuse, Depersonalization, and the Innate Alarm and Defensive Systems" published in the Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma. This study explores verbal abuse as a severe form of relational trauma and its connection to depersonalization symptoms. It also discusses the neurobiological mechanisms involved and the effectiveness of therapeutic interventions.

Nonverbal Intimidation

Nonverbal intimidation involves the use of body language, facial expressions, gestures, or other nonverbal cues to assert dominance, instill fear, or manipulate others. This form of intimidation can include prolonged staring, invading personal space, aggressive posturing, or even subtle actions like dismissive gestures. It often operates on a subconscious level, leveraging the power of nonverbal communication to influence social dynamics and power relationships.

A study by Burgoon et al. (2021) explores how nonverbal behaviors convey relational messages, focusing on three key dimensions: dominance-submission, trust-distrust, and composure-nervousness. The research highlights the role of facial expressions, posture, and vocal cues in shaping interpersonal dynamics. Using advanced tools like machine learning, the study delves into the complexities of nonverbal communication, particularly in group interactions involving deception. It also addresses challenges in studying these behaviors under naturalistic conditions and proposes methods to overcome them. This work underscores the subtle yet powerful impact of nonverbal signals on relationships and social interactions.

A chapter by Chadee, Chadee, and Kostić (2025) may also be helpful. The authors examine the role of nonverbal behavior in investigative interviewing. The chapter highlights how body language, such as facial expressions, gestures, and posture, can influence the dynamics of interviews, particularly in legal and forensic contexts. The authors discuss the importance of understanding nonverbal cues to detect deception, build rapport, and enhance communication effectiveness. They also explore the challenges of interpreting nonverbal signals accurately and emphasize the need for training and awareness in this area.

Psychological Manipulation

Psychological manipulation involves tactics aimed at influencing or controlling another person's thoughts, emotions, or behaviors, often through deceptive or exploitative means. Intimidation, a subset of manipulation, uses fear, threats, or dominance to achieve similar goals. Both are rooted in power dynamics and can have significant psychological impacts, such as anxiety, diminished self-esteem, and emotional distress.

Here are two related studies.

The study by Burgoon et al. (2021) explores how nonverbal behaviors convey relational messages, focusing on three key dimensions: dominance-submission, trust-distrust, and composure-nervousness. The research highlights the role of facial expressions, posture, and vocal cues in shaping interpersonal dynamics. Using advanced tools like machine learning, the study delves into the complexities of nonverbal communication, particularly in group interactions involving deception. It also addresses challenges in studying these behaviors under naturalistic conditions and proposes methods to overcome them. This work underscores the subtle yet powerful impact of nonverbal signals on relationships and social interactions.

The chapter by Chadee, Chadee, and Kostić (2025) examines the role of nonverbal behavior in investigative interviewing. It highlights how body language, such as facial expressions, gestures, and posture, can influence the dynamics of interviews, particularly in legal and forensic contexts. The authors discuss the importance of understanding nonverbal cues to detect deception, build rapport, and enhance communication effectiveness. They also explore the challenges of interpreting nonverbal signals accurately and emphasize the need for training and awareness in this area. This work provides valuable insights into the intersection of psychology, communication, and investigative practices.

Bullying

Bullying is a form of intimidation that involves repeated aggressive behavior intended to harm, dominate, or control another individual. It often exploits power imbalances and can manifest in various forms, including physical, verbal, social, or cyberbullying. The psychological effects of bullying can be profound, leading to anxiety, depression, and long-term emotional trauma.

Here are summaries of two relevant psychology journal articles:

Hymel, S., & Swearer, S. M. (2015) provide an overview of 40 years of research on school bullying, focusing on its prevalence, forms, and psychological consequences. It highlights the complexity of bullying behaviors and their impact on victims, including emotional distress and academic challenges. The authors also discuss effective prevention and intervention strategies.

Tuckey and colleagues (2022) examined bullying in the workplace as a systemic issue. Their study examines workplace bullying as a systemic issue linked to ineffective management practices. It explores the contexts in which bullying arises and its detrimental effects on employees' mental health and organizational culture. The authors propose strategies for improving management practices to mitigate bullying.

Why Do People Intimidate?

Desire for Control: Some people use intimidation to exert control over others, manipulate situations, or maintain dominance. (2, 3)

Lack of Self-Esteem: Individuals with low self-esteem may resort to intimidation to feel powerful or in control. (2, 5) Read about self-esttem.

Personality Disorders: Certain personality disorders, like narcissistic personality disorder, can be associated with a tendency to intimidate others. (2)

Learned Behavior: Intimidating behavior can be learned through upbringing, experiences, or observing others. (2)

To Hide Insecurities: Some people use intimidation to mask their own insecurities or vulnerabilities. (4)

What are the Effects of Intimidation?

Emotional Distress: Intimidation can lead to feelings of fear, anxiety, depression, and low self-esteem.

Social Isolation: Victims of intimidation may withdraw from social situations or relationships.

Physical Health Problems: Chronic stress and anxiety caused by intimidation can lead to physical health problems.

Reduced Functioning: Intimidation can negatively impact a person's ability to work, study, or engage in other activities. (1, 7)

What are Some Ways to Deal With Intimidation?

Set Boundaries: Clearly communicate your boundaries and expectations to the person who is intimidating you. (6)

Seek Support: Talk to trusted friends, family members, or a psychotherapist about your experiences. (7)

Report the Behavior: If you are being bullied or harassed, report the behavior to the appropriate authorities. (8)

Focus on Self-Care: Engage in activities that promote your well-being and help you to feel confident and empowered. (7)

Cite this post

Sutton, G. S. (2025). The psychology of intimidation. Psychology Concepts and Theories. https://suttonpsychology.blogspot.com/2025/03/intimidation-in-psychology.html

Journal References

Burgoon, J. K., Wang, X., Chen, X., & Pentland, S. J. (2021). Nonverbal behaviors “speak” relational messages of dominance, trust, and composure. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.624177

Chadee, M., Chadee, D., & Kostić, A. (2025). Investigative interviewing: Implications for nonverbal behaviour. In Body Language Communication (pp. 355–376). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-70064-4_14

Frau, C., & Corrigan, F. M. (2024). Verbal abuse, depersonalization, and the innate alarm and defensive systems: A single case illustration of treatment with deep brain reorienting. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-024-00672-z

Gaikwad, M. M., & Sharma, L. (2024). Gaslighting: An in-depth review of psychological manipulation and its implications. EPRA International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research. Retrieved from EPRA Journals.

Hymel, S., & Swearer, S. M. (2015). Four decades of research on school bullying: An introduction. American Psychologist, 70(4), 293–299. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038928

March, E., Kay, C. S., Dinić, B. M., Wagstaff, D., Grabovac, B., & Jonason, P. K. (2025). "It’s all in your head": Personality traits and gaslighting tactics in intimate relationships. Journal of Family Violence, 40, 259–268. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-023-00582-y

Tuckey, M. R., Li, Y., Neall, A. M., Chen, P. Y., Dollard, M. F., McLinton, S. S., Rogers, A., & Mattiske, J. (2022).

Online References and Resources

1 https://www.local.gov.uk/practical-advice-handling-psychological-abuse-and-impact-wellbeing

2 https://www.verywellmind.com/how-to-be-less-intimidating-7094249

3 https://www.ywcanwil.org/intimidation-the-why-behind-it/

4 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intimidation(

5 https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/articles/201908/the-intimidation-factor

6 https://psychcentral.com/blog/feeling-intimidated-you-can-overcome-it

7 https://thesummitwellnessgroup.com/blog/effects-of-emotional-intimidation/

8 https://www.fcc.gov/sites/default/files/threat_guide_english_final.pdf

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Related Posts

Gaslighting

Narcissistic Personality Disorder

Spiritual or Religious Abuse

Spiritual or Religious Harassment

Images created by Geoffrey W. Sutton and artspace.ai

Wednesday, March 6, 2024

Snake Phobia or Ophidiophobia

Ophidiophobia is an intense, irrational fear of snakes. Unlike normal fear, which arises in response to actual danger (like encountering a rattlesnake in the woods), ophidiophobia triggers anxiety even when thinking about snakes or seeing them on television.

Symptoms of ophidiophobia include:

Emotional stress and anxiety

A sense of immediate danger or doom

Rapid heart rate

Sweating

Shaking, trembling

Shortness of breath

Chest pain or discomfort

Nausea

Dizziness, or feeling lightheaded

Fear of losing control or death (also dread and terror)

Tingling sensations

Avoidant behavior (e.g., reptile houses at zoos, nature trails, some movies and jobs)

Prevalence

In the US, 64% reported snakes as a cause of fear—32% reported being “very afraid” (Moore, 2014, March 27). The level of fear is worse for older (over age 65) Americans (79% are scared). Fear of snakes is not the top fear in the UK but is still common at 52% behind fear of heights and public speaking.

The fear of snakes is among the most common fear. About half of a population reported a fear of snakes and 2-3% met diagnostic criteria for snake phobia (Polák, 2016).

Gender Differences

Multiple studies, including Fredrikson, Annas, Fischer and Wik (1996), have found specific gender differences in the prevalence of ophidiophobia. In fact, women are four times more likely to have a phobia of snakes compared to men.

Preparedness Theory and Ophidiophobia:

Humans are biologically predisposed to fear snakes more readily than other animals.

Fear acquisition happens faster with snakes due to our evolutionary history.

The amygdala, a brain structure, which plays a role in processing snake-related fear and response. (The amygdala is also involved in memory formation.)

Causes and Diagnosis:

The fear network in the human brain, involving the amygdala, plays a role in processing snake-related stimuli.

Diagnosis is based on symptoms outlined in the most recent DSM.

Treatment and Overcoming Ophidiophobia:

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is effective in treating specific phobias.

Techniques like exposure therapy help desensitize individuals to snake-related stimuli.

Practical ways to overcome ophidiophobia include gradual exposure, relaxation techniques, and seeking professional help.

Ophidiophobia and Religion

The fear of snakes is common in many cultures. In the Hebrew Bible, a snake appears as a talking character that deceives Eve, the first woman in Genesis.

References

Fredrikson, M., Annas, P., Fischer, H., & Wik, G. (1996). Gender and age differences in the prevalence of specific fears and phobias. Behaviour research and therapy, 34(1), 33–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(95)00048-3

Moore, P. (2014, March 27). Snakes, heights and public speaking are the top three fears in the Home of the Brave. YouGov. Retrieved from https://today.yougov.com/society/articles/8983-argh-snakes

Polák, J., Sedláčková, K., Nácar, D., Landová, E., & Frynta, D. (2016). Fear the serpent: A psychometric study of snake phobia. Psychiatry research, 242, 163–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2016.05.024

Cite this post

Sutton, G. W. (2024, March 6). Snake Phobia or Ophidiophobia. Psychology Concepts and Theories. Retrieved from https://suttonpsychology.blogspot.com/2024/03/snake-phobia-or-ophidiophobia.html

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is www.suttong.com

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Dr. Sutton’s posts are for educational purposes only. See a licensed mental health provider for diagnoses, treatment, and consultation.

Thursday, February 3, 2022

psychological safety

Psychological safety is a social setting characterized by evidence that people in that setting can ask questions, express concerns, make mistakes, and share ideas without feeling they will be punished, experience verbal abuse, or be targeted with microaggressions by other people in that setting.

Psychological safety is vital to teams in work, school, and organizational settings. When people do not feel safe to share a different idea or suggest downsides of other ideas, the business or organization can miss important information that may avoid disaster or lead to significant progress.

A key to psychological safety is trust. When one or more team members signal even mild threats, people may keep quiet to avoid embarrassment and humiliation. Perceived threats activate the fear circuit, which includes the amygdala.

Effective leaders create a setting where strategic risks can be considered without fear.

Please check out my website www.suttong.com

and see my books on AMAZON or GOOGLE STORE

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Thursday, March 12, 2020

Reactive Approach Motivation RAM a psychological science concept

Reactive Approach Motivation (RAM ; McGregor, 2006) refers to the way people deal with anxiety producing threats by becoming extremely zealous, which reduces the anxiety caused by the threat.

The zealous pursuit focuses on an ideal that offers hope and strength, bolsters values and convictions. People are motivated to become closed minded. They may increase religious fervor or political extremism depending on their value system.

RAM is based on the neuropsychology of anxiety. Anxiety rises in situations of uncertainty. RAM proposes that people deal with anxious uncertainty by ardently pursuing meaningful goals. When anxious, people become more vigilant and prepare for fight or flight responses.

Example

People with travel plans during the 2020 Coronavirus pandemic anxiously searched online for information about the virus, government announcements, and travel news. Many zealously warned of the growing extent of the flu. Others tried to encourage people with religious messages. Some sought financial safety by selling their shares in businesses. Others focused on repeating messages about washing hands and avoiding social contact. Even the hand washing was couched in religious language as "Holy Hygiene."

Related concepts / posts

Terror Management Theory

Meaning Maintenance Model

Reference

McGregor, I. (2006). Offensive defensiveness: Toward an integrative neuroscience of compensatory zeal after mortality salience, personal uncertainty, and other poignant self-threats. Psychological Inquiry, 17(4), 299–308. https://doi.org/10.1080/10478400701366977

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Tuesday, February 25, 2020

Psychology of "triggers"

In psychology, triggers are events that elicit a response. Clinicians often focus on helping people recognize triggers or events that appear to produce a distressing response as if they had stepped on a mine that triggered an explosion.

People, places, films, songs, smells, words, and many other stimuli can trigger a response or a chain of responses. Some trigger-response pairs are innate like cringing in response to loud noises. But the relatively benign triggers may come to elicit extreme responses following traumatic experiences. For example, my mother was trapped under the stairs when a bomb exploded near our house. She remained hyper-reactive to fireworks, thunder, and gun shots throughout her life.

Although the concept of triggers is often associated with recognizing and coping with events that are upsetting. A different perspective would be to view triggers as those stimuli that routinely elicit a response or chain of responses. In high school, a few of us knew what questions to ask to get a particular teacher off topic, which we often did just to make class more interesting.

A variety of events can elicit pleasant, neutral, or unpleasant reactions. And, the same event may affect different people in different ways. A beach scene with ocean waves may trigger pleasant memories, a smile, and good feelings in some, but remind others of some horrible event. In fact, depending on context, the same stimulus may be perceived as pleasant in one context but obnoxious in another. Certain words are accepted as pleasant teasing from a friend but may trigger anger when coming from a stranger.

Powerful triggers can affect many aspects of our core self. Using the SCOPES model, we can think of a hypothetical response set of a person who survived a mass shooting in church.

Potential triggers could be someone who looked like the shooter, the sounds of gun shots, people who look like those who did not survive, news stories or movies of similar events, and churches.

SCOPES	Hypothetical responses to a trigger of surviving a mass shooting in church
Spiritual	Cry for help. Anger with God.
Cognition	Recurrent images of the horrid event
Overt Behavior	Tensing muscles, closing eyes as if to avoid the image
Physical	Increased heart rate
Emotion	Fear, anger
Social context	Response worsens in church setting

Psychotherapists have helped people recognize triggers of distressing responses and reduce the impact.

Developing life enhancing characteristics may help "trigger" positive rather than negative responses.

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Wednesday, January 8, 2020

Spiritual Struggles Psychology of Religion

Spiritual struggles are typically experiences of conflicts of religious or spiritual beliefs, practices, or experiences that cause or extend distress. The distress may be experienced as an emotion such as sadness, anger, or anxiety. In addition, people who struggle may wrestle with conflicting thoughts.

Spiritual struggles can be interpersonal and intrapersonal. Interpersonal spiritual struggles may be between the individual and God such as anger with God for “not showing up as expected” or acting in a way that seemed unloving. Spiritual struggles may also be between the person and others such as a young college woman experiencing conflicts with parents over religious values or conflicts within congregations.

Intrapersonal struggles may be experienced as a failure to live up to spiritual standards of right living or difficulty in forgiving oneself for moral failure. Struggles may also be experienced as a battle with supernatural evil.

Spiritual struggles may be different from other psychological difficulties because of the experience of the supernatural as well as the importance of religion and spirituality to the identity of many people.

Spiritual struggles can be assessed through interviews and survey items.

Some research suggests younger persons and women are more susceptible to struggles than are others.

Spiritual struggles can affect mood and behavior with symptoms of depression and anxiety evident. Religious scholar Marcus Borg referred to anxiety, fear, guilt, and anguish as the told of his spiritual struggle as an adolescent Christian.

The effects of a struggle may be closely linked to the struggle itself or the effects may worsen an existing health or mental health condition. Spiritual struggles have been linked to worsening a variety of general health conditions such as cardiovascular problems and cancer.

Few studies have looked at the possibility of personal growth following a spiritual struggle. This is an area in need of research. An example might be a more mature outlook or sense of peace and wellbeing once the struggle has been resolved.

When spiritual struggles result from a person's behavior that violates their spiritual/moral standards, self-forgiveness may be helpful in repairing the distress and "healing the soul."

I am drawing on a summary by Julie Exline (2013) for this post. Please see her chapter (below) or other works to learn more about spiritual struggles and the names of prominent scientists who study this field.

You can find a variety of scales and survey items related to spirituality at my Assessment and Statistics Blog. Some of the measures are free to use or may be free with permission of the author. https://statistics.suttong.com/

Some spiritual survey scales and items are included in the book CreatingSurveys

available on AMAZON worldwide

How to measure Spiritual Struggles and Coping

Religious and Spiritual Struggles Scale

Brief RCOPE Scale (religious coping)

Related posts

Conversion / Deconversion in Psychology of Religion

Demonology, Deliverance, and the Psychology of Religion

Religious Spiritual Coping - Positive and Negative

Cite this post

Sutton, G. W. (2020, January 8). Spiritual struggles. Psychology concepts and theories. https://suttonpsychology.blogspot.com/2020/01/spiritual-struggles.html

Reference

Exline, J. J. (2013). Religious and spiritual struggles. In J. J. Exline (Ed.), APA handbook of psychology, religion, and spirituality (Vol 1): Context, theory, and research. (pp. 459–475). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14045-025

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