The Psychology of Hate
A Complex Emotion
Hate is a complex and intense emotion characterized by feelings of hostility, aversion, and a desire to harm or distance oneself from the object of hate. Psychologically, hate often arises from fear, perceived threats, or unresolved anger. It can be directed at individuals, groups, or even abstract concepts. Hate is deeply tied to identity and group dynamics, often manifesting through in-group/out-group biases, where love for one's group can fuel aggression toward others.
Interestingly, hate and love share some neurological and psychological underpinnings. Research has shown that both emotions activate overlapping brain regions, such as the putamen and insula, which are associated with intense emotional experiences. This overlap may explain why love and hate can coexist in relationships or why strong feelings of love can sometimes turn into hate, especially in cases of betrayal or unmet expectations.
Cite this post
Sutton, G. W. (2025). The psychology of hate: A complex emotion. Psychology Concepts and Theories. https://suttonpsychology.blogspot.com/2025/03/psychology-of-hate.html
Hate and Love
Wang et al. (2017) investigated the complex interplay between love and hate, particularly in romantic relationships, and highlighted how strong feelings of love can sometimes lead to intense hate in the context of betrayal. Here's more:
Love and Hate as Basic Human Affects: The study emphasizes that love and hate are fundamental emotions that often coexist, especially in romantic relationships. While love fosters connection and positive feelings, hate can emerge in response to betrayal or unmet expectations.
Role of Similarity: The researchers found that individuals who share similar values and interests with their romantic partners tend to experience stronger feelings of love. However, in cases of betrayal, these strong feelings of love can transform into intense hate.
Emotional Reactions to Betrayal: The study highlights that betrayal in romantic relationships can trigger complex emotional responses. For individuals who deeply love their partners, hate may arise but is often intertwined with lingering feelings of love. Conversely, for those with weaker emotional bonds, hate tends to dominate.
Methodology: The researchers used vignettes to induce feelings of love and hate in a sample of 59 young adults. Participants were asked to imagine scenarios involving romantic partners, which allowed the researchers to analyze their emotional reactions.
Implications: The findings suggest that the intensity of love can amplify the intensity of hate in the context of relational betrayal. This underscores the complex interplay between these two emotions and their impact on interpersonal dynamics.
Aumer et al. (2016) provided insights into hate within interpersonal relationships.
Hate in Relationships: The study highlights that while much research focuses on love and anger in relationships, hate is an underexplored yet significant emotion. Hate can arise in interpersonal relationships due to hurtful or damaging experiences.
Lasting Impact of Hate: The researchers found that hatred leaves a lasting negative impression on relationships. Individuals who reported feelings of hate toward their partners experienced lower levels of intimacy, satisfaction, and love in their relationships.
Effort Justification and Cognitive Dissonance: The study explored how effort justification (the idea that people value relationships more when they invest significant effort into them) and cognitive dissonance (the mental discomfort from holding conflicting attitudes) play a role in relationships where hate has been present. Interestingly, longer relationships showed higher commitment levels, even when hate was reported.
Cross-Cultural Insights: The research included participants from the United States and Norway, providing a cross-cultural perspective on how hate operates in relationships.
Implications: The findings suggest that hate is a critical factor in understanding relationship dynamics and should be considered in assessments of relationship quality. The study also emphasizes the need for further empirical research on hate in interpersonal contexts.
Hate and Forgiveness
Research shows how forgiveness can mitigate feelings of hatred and promote emotional healing. Here are a few notable findings:
Forgiveness and Emotional Regulation: Research has shown that forgiveness can help individuals regulate negative emotions, including hate, by fostering empathy and reducing the desire for revenge.
In-Group and Out-Group Dynamics: Studies have examined how forgiveness can reduce intergroup hatred and promote reconciliation, particularly in contexts of conflict or prejudice.
Health Benefits of Forgiveness: Forgiveness has been linked to improved mental and physical health, as it reduces stress and negative emotions like hatred.
Hate and Mental Health
Hate itself is not classified as a psychological disorder, but it can be a symptom or manifestation of certain mental health conditions or psychological phenomena. Here are some examples:
Personality Disorders: Disorders like borderline personality disorder (BPD) or narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) can involve intense emotions, including hatred, often directed at others due to perceived rejection, criticism, or betrayal.
Paranoid Disorders: Paranoid personality disorder or delusional disorder can lead to feelings of hatred stemming from mistrust, suspicion, or perceived threats.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): In some cases, individuals with PTSD may develop hatred toward those they associate with their trauma, such as perpetrators of violence or abuse.
Intermittent Explosive Disorder (IED): This disorder is characterized by sudden episodes of intense anger or aggression, which can sometimes be accompanied by feelings of hatred.
It's important to note that hate is also influenced by social, cultural, and environmental factors, and not all expressions of hate are linked to mental health conditions.
Hate and Violence
Research on hate and violence often explores the psychological, social, and cultural factors that contribute to these behaviors, as well as their consequences. Here’s a summary of key findings:
Psychological Roots: Hate and violence are often rooted in fear, prejudice, and perceived threats to identity or resources. Studies highlight the role of in-group/out-group dynamics in fostering hostility.
Impact on Victims: Hate-based violence has profound psychological effects, including increased rates of depression, anxiety, and PTSD. It also affects entire communities, leading to vicarious trauma and a sense of insecurity.
Prevention and Intervention: Research emphasizes the importance of education, empathy-building, and community engagement in reducing hate and violence. Evidence-based approaches focus on addressing underlying biases and promoting social cohesion.
See Novotney (2023), Sugarman et al. (2018), and United States Department of Justice (2024).
Hate Group Defined
USA
In the United States, a hate group is generally defined as an organization that promotes animosity, hostility, or violence against individuals based on characteristics such as race, religion, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or gender identity. According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the primary purpose of a hate group is to foster hatred and malice toward specific groups of people. Following is the quote I retrieved from fbi.gov on 17 March 2025.
"Defining a Hate Crime
A hate crime is a traditional offense like murder, arson, or vandalism with an added element of bias. For the purposes of collecting statistics, the FBI has defined a hate crime as a criminal offense against a person or property motivated in whole or in part by an offender’s bias against race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, ethnicity, gender, or gender identity. Hate itself is not a crime—and the FBI is mindful of protecting freedom of speech and other civil liberties."
UK
In the UK, a hate crime is defined as any criminal offense that is perceived by the victim or any other person to be motivated by hostility or prejudice based on certain protected characteristics. These characteristics include:
Race or perceived race
Religion or perceived religion
Sexual orientation or perceived sexual orientation
Disability or perceived disability
Transgender identity or perceived transgender identity
This definition emphasizes the perception of hostility or prejudice, meaning that even if the offender's intent is not explicitly proven, the perception of the victim or others is sufficient to classify the act as a hate crime. See the Crown Prosecution Service reference.
European Union
The European Union defines hate crimes as criminal acts motivated by bias or prejudice against particular groups of people based on characteristics such as race, religion, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or disability. These crimes are addressed under the EU's Framework Decision on combating certain forms of racism and xenophobia, which requires member states to criminalize public incitement to violence or hatred based on these characteristics. See the references below for the European union.
United Nations
I did not find a specific definition of a hate crime.
If you have other national perspectives you would like to add, place them in the comments along with the link to the official government page.
Historic Leaders' Views on Hate
Martin Luther King Jr.: "Darkness cannot drive out darkness; only light can do that. Hate cannot drive out hate; only love can do that." This quote is from his book Strength to Love.
Mahatma Gandhi: "Hatred can be overcome only by love." This reflects Gandhi's philosophy of nonviolence and is widely cited in his writings.
References and Resources
Aumer, K., Bahn, A. C. K., Janicki, C., Guzman, N., Pierson, N., Strand, S. E., & Totlund, H. (2016). Can't let it go: Hate in interpersonal relationships. Journal of Relationships Research, 7, e2. https://doi.org/10.1017/jrr.2016.2
Crown Prosecution Service. (n.d.). Hate crime. Retrieved from https://www.cps.gov.uk/crime-info/hate-crime
European Commission. (n.d.). Combating hate speech and hate crime. Retrieved from https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/policies/justice-and-fundamental-rights/combatting-discrimination/racism-and-xenophobia/combating-hate-speech-and-hate-crime_en
European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. (n.d.). Hate crime. Retrieved from https://fra.europa.eu/en/themes/hate-crime
European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights. (2023). Hate crime in the European Union. Retrieved from https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra-factsheet_hatecrime_en_final_0.pdfFederal Bureau of Investigation. (n.d.). Hate crimes. Retrieved from https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/civil-rights/hate-crimes
Novotney, A. (2023). Hate crimes are on the rise in the U.S.: What are the psychological effects? American Psychological Association. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/topics/gun-violence-crime/hate-crimes
Sugarman, D. B., Nation, M., Yuan, N. P., Kuperminc, G. P., Hassoun Ayoub, L., & Hamby, S. (2018). Hate and violence: Addressing discrimination based on race, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, and gender identity. Psychology of Violence, 8(6), 649–656. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000222
Sutton, G. W. (2025). Psychology of hate. Psychology Concepts and Theories. https://suttonpsychology.blogspot.com/2025/03/psychology-of-hate.html
United States Department of Justice. (2024). Hate crimes: Facts and statistics. Retrieved from https://www.justice.gov/hatecrimes/hate-crime-statistics
Wang, J., Xiang, Y., & Lei, M. (2017). The deeper the love, the deeper the hate. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1940. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01940
Zeki, S., & Romaya, J. P. (2008). Neural correlates of hate. PLoS ONE, 3(10), e3556. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0003556
Post Author
Geoffrey W. Sutton, Professor Emeritus of Psychology at Evangel University, holds a master’s degree in counseling and a PhD in psychology from the University of Missouri-Columbia. His postdoctoral work encompassed education and supervision in forensic and neuropsychology. As a licensed psychologist, he conducted clinical and neuropsychological evaluations and provided psychotherapy for patients in various settings, including schools, hospitals, and private offices. During his tenure as a professor, Dr. Sutton taught courses on psychotherapy, assessment, and research. He has authored over one hundred publications, including books, book chapters, and articles in peer-reviewed psychology journals. His website is https://suttong.com
