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| AI image Illustrating Bullying in School |
Exploring its impact in schools, offices, and churches, and evidence-based strategies for prevention.
Bullying is defined in social psychology as intentional, repeated aggression that involves a real or perceived power imbalance between the perpetrator and the target. Social-ecological models further highlight that bullying is not merely a dyadic interaction but a group phenomenon shaped by peer, family, school, and community contexts (Swearer & Hymel, 2015). In school-age populations, surveillance definitions often mirror these elements, including cyberbullying, which shares the same core features of unwanted aggression, repetition, and imbalance of power (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2024).
The three criteria of bullying
Researchers recognize three criteria to decide if an act qualifies as bullying (Anjum et al., 2019).
1. Systematic exposure to negative treatment such as once a week.
2. Long term exposure to negative treatment -- close to six months.
3. A power inequality between the bully and the person bullied.
Cyberbullying
Cyberbullying is defined as intentional and repeated aggression carried out through electronic means, such as social media, text messaging, email, or online forums, where a power imbalance exists between the perpetrator and the victim (Cowie, 2013). It shares the core features of traditional bullying—intent to harm, repetition, and imbalance of power—but is distinguished by its digital medium, which allows anonymity, rapid dissemination, and persistence of harmful content (Slonje & Smith, 2008). Research indicates that cyberbullying is associated with increased risks of depression, anxiety, loneliness, and social withdrawal, similar to face‑to‑face bullying (Cowie, 2013).
Bullying Versus Mobbing
Although bullying and mobbing share similarities, they are distinct concepts. Bullying typically involves one or a few aggressors targeting an individual, whereas mobbing refers to collective, coordinated harassment in workplaces where many join against a single target. Mobbing is characterized by ostracism, shaming, and group-based undermining, while bullying emphasizes the power imbalance between individuals. Thus, bullying is often studied in youth and school contexts, while mobbing is more prevalent in organizational settings.
See post on mobbing.
Prevalence Data
Recent survey data indicate that bullying remains a significant issue in both schools and workplaces. In U.S. schools, approximately one in five high school students reported being bullied on school property in the past year, with electronic bullying also common (CDC, 2024). National Health Interview Survey data from 2021–2023 found that 34% of teenagers aged 12–17 reported being bullied in the past 12 months, with higher rates among younger adolescents (38.4% for ages 12–14 compared to 29.7% for ages 15–17) and among girls (38.3%) compared to boys (29.9). Sexual and gender minority teens reported even higher rates (47.1%) compared to non-minority peers (Haile et al., 2024). The National Center for Education Statistics (2024) also documented detailed national estimates on bullying location, repetition, and negative effects.
“Workplace bullying affects 1 in 3 adults. Schools report similar rates among teens.
Prevention starts with awareness.”
In workplaces, the Workplace Bullying Institute (2024) reported that 32% of adult Americans experienced direct bullying at work, with an additional 14% witnessing it. The majority of bullying was top-down (55%), and women were slightly more likely to be targets (51%). LGBTQ workers reported a 51% bullying rate, and hybrid workers experienced the highest prevalence (51%).
Effects of Bullying
Bullying victimization is consistently associated with increased depression, anxiety, and broader psychosocial difficulties. Longitudinal evidence indicates that these effects can persist into late adolescence and adulthood (Swearer & Hymel, 2015; Källmén & Hallgren, 2021). Dose and duration matter: prior, recent, and long-term bullying are each associated with higher anxiety and depression among adolescents, although school connectedness can buffer depressive effects of recent bullying (Ajibewa et al., 2025). Cyberbullying shares risks with face-to-face bullying, with documented impacts on loneliness, social withdrawal, low self-esteem, and depression (Cowie, 2013).
Examples of Bullying in Different Settings
Bullying manifests differently across contexts. In offices, it may involve undermining colleagues by withholding information, public shaming during meetings, or supervisors abusing power through intimidation (Wilson, 2021). In warehouses, bullying can include assigning unsafe tasks to disliked workers or enforcing group ostracism. In colleges, relational aggression such as exclusion from study groups, rumor spreading, or humiliating posts in online forums is common. High schools often see name-calling, threats, group exclusion, and cyberbullying, with higher rates among girls and younger teens (CDC, 2024; Haile et al., 2024). In churches, bullying may take the form of intimidation, shaming during meetings, or youth exclusion that overlaps with school-based bullying (Alsgaard, n.d.).
Examples of Cyberbullying
In high schools, cyberbullying may involve students posting humiliating photos or spreading false rumors on social media platforms. In colleges, it can manifest as exclusion from online study groups or derogatory comments in course discussion forums. Within workplaces, employees may experience cyberbullying through hostile emails, group chats, or public shaming on professional networking sites. Even in community or church settings, youth may be targeted via group messaging apps, where peers coordinate exclusion or ridicule.
Bullying in the Movies
A Christmas Story (1983)
Scut Farkus, the neighborhood bully, terrorizes Ralphie and his friends until they finally stand up to him. This portrayal captures the fear and eventual empowerment of bullied children.
The Karate Kid (1984, 2010 remake)
A new student is targeted by a group of bullies until he learns martial arts to defend himself. The film emphasizes resilience, mentorship, and nonviolent responses to aggression.
Back to the Future (1985)
Biff Tannen is a classic cinematic bully, tormenting George McFly in high school and continuing his intimidation into adulthood, symbolizing generational cycles of harassment.
Mean Girls (2004)
This satirical teen comedy highlights relational aggression, cliques, and social exclusion. Regina George and “the Plastics” use manipulation, gossip, and public shaming to control peers. Although it included bullying, it’s more about mobbing, which included group aggression, social exclusion, and power through group status.
Bullying in Literature
Lord of the Flies by William Golding
While the group dynamics eventually lead to mob violence, the initial persecution of Piggy is driven by the clear antagonism of Jack and his initial followers, who single him out for his physical weakness and intelligence.
Great Expectations by Charles Dickens
Estella's emotional cruelty toward Pip is a one-on-one dynamic, where she uses her social status to demean him.
Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck
Curley is the archetypal individual bully in the workplace, using his position of power (boss's son) to pick fights and intimidate others, particularly Lennie.
Bullying in the Bible
King Saul and David: After David's success and popularity grew, King Saul became consumed by jealousy. He relentlessly harassed, pursued, and attempted to kill David on multiple occasions, using his authority and physical power as king to persecute David.
Joseph's Brothers: Out of envy of their father's favoritism (symbolized by the coat of many colors) and Joseph's prophetic dreams, his brothers ridiculed him ("hated him and could not speak peaceably unto him"), plotted his death, and eventually sold him into slavery.
Bullying in the News
There are many examples of bullying in the news. Such stories may help make it clear that bullying is real and can result in horrific consequences. A search will reveal so many tragic examples.
Prevention Strategies
“From classrooms to churches, bullying takes many forms.
Let’s talk solutions, not silence.”
Evidence-based prevention strategies emphasize social-emotional skill building, policy enforcement, and climate improvement. School-based programs that strengthen empathy, conflict management, and teamwork reduce bullying, while bystanders can be trained to intervene effectively (CDC, 2024). Clear anti-bullying policies and consistent enforcement are associated with reductions in bullying (StopBullying.gov, 2024). Communication strategies, including teaching youth what bullying is and encouraging open dialogue between adults and youth, are also effective. Healthcare integration, such as routine screening during well-child visits, can help identify bullying’s health impacts (StopBullying.gov, 2024). In workplaces, prevention requires defining and prohibiting bullying behaviors, training managers on accountability, establishing confidential reporting systems, and protecting targets from retaliation (Workplace Bullying Institute, 2024; Wilson, 2021).
“Workplace bullying impacts productivity, mental health, and organizational culture. Understanding the psychology of bullying is the first step toward prevention.”
Post Author
Find chapters and essays on Substack. [ @GeoffreyWSutton ]
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References
Ajibewa, T. A., Kershaw, K. N., Carnethon, M. R., Heard-Garris, N. J., Beach, L. B., & Allen, N. B. (2025). Peer bullying victimization, psychological distress, and the protective role of school connectedness among adolescents. BMC Public Health, 25, 2763. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-025-24002-6 [Age 15; N = 2,175; 49% female]
Anjum, A., Muazzam, A., Manzoor, F., Visvizi, A., Pollock, G., & Nawaz, R. (2019). Measuring the Scale and Scope of Workplace Bullying: An Alternative Workplace Bullying Scale. Sustainability, 11(17), 4634. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11174634
Alsgaard, E. (n.d.). Bullying happens in church. Don’t ignore it! ResourceUMC. https://www.resourceumc.org/es/content/bullying-happens-in-church-dont-ignore-it
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024). Bullying. Youth Violence Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/youth-violence/about/about-bullying.html
Cowie, H. (2013). Cyberbullying and its impact on young people’s emotional health and well-being. The Psychiatrist, 37(5), 167–170. https://doi.org/10.1192/pb.bp.112.040840
Haile, G., Arockiaraj, B., Zablotsky, B., & Ng, A. E. (2024). Bullying victimization among teenagers: United States, July 2021–December 2023 (NCHS Data Brief No. 514). National Center for Health Statistics. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db514.htm
Källmén, H., & Hallgren, M. (2021). Bullying at school and mental health problems among adolescents: A repeated cross-sectional study. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 15, 74. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-021-00425-y
National Center for Education Statistics. (2024). Student reports of bullying: Results from the 2022 School Crime Supplement to the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCES 2024-109). https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2024/2024109.pdf
Slonje, R., & Smith, P. K. (2008). Cyberbullying: Another main type of bullying? Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 49(2), 147–154. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.2007.00611.x
StopBullying.gov. (2024). Prevent bullying. https://www.stopbullying.gov
Swearer, S. M., & Hymel, S. (2015). Understanding the psychology of bullying: Moving toward a social-ecological diathesis–stress model. American Psychologist, 70(4), 344–353. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038929
Wilson, C. (2021). Workplace bullying: Examples and prevention strategies. PositivePsychology.com. https://positivepsychology.com/workplace-bullying
Workplace Bullying Institute. (2024). 2024 WBI U.S. Workplace Bullying Survey (Flyer). https://workplacebullying.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/2024-Flyer.pdf
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