Wednesday, March 19, 2025

Psychology of Time




PSYCHOLOGY OF TIME

Psychologists view time as a multifaceted construct influenced by cognitive, emotional, and cultural factors. Research often explores how individuals perceive, estimate, and experience time, which can vary based on age, mood, and context. For example, time may seem to "fly" during enjoyable activities but "drag" during unpleasant ones. Studies also examine how time perception impacts decision-making, memory, and behavior.



Organizing Research on Time Using the SCOPES Model

SCOPES is a holistic model for organizing clinical and research information in the core areas of human functioning common to comprehensive neuropsychological assessments (e.g., Sutton, 2021).

S Self/ Self-Concept / Self-Identity / Self-Esteem

Beyond simply recalling events, we weave our experiences into coherent life stories. This narrative structure gives meaning to our past, influences our current self-concept, and guides how we imagine the future. Renowned work by McAdams (2001) emphasizes that narrative identity is central to understanding how we interpret and integrate our life events.

Self-esteem significantly shapes how individuals perceive the past, present, and future. Those with high self-esteem tend to recall past experiences more positively, focusing on achievements and personal growth, which bolsters a sense of continuity and self-worth (Lyubomirsky et al., 2006). In the present, high self-esteem is associated with a greater ability to engage in mindful and adaptive behaviors, promoting emotional well-being and a balanced perspective. Conversely, individuals with low self-esteem are more likely to ruminate on negative past experiences, leading to a less optimistic outlook on the present and future. This disparity underscores the influence of self-esteem on temporal outlooks, as it affects both retrospective appraisals and forward-looking aspirations.

Moreover, self-esteem can impact one's future time perspective by shaping goal-setting behaviors and resilience. High self-esteem individuals are more likely to exhibit a proactive and optimistic approach to future planning, as they possess confidence in their abilities to achieve goals (Orth et al., 2012). Conversely, those with low self-esteem may hesitate to invest in future endeavors due to fear of failure or self-doubt, which can limit their personal and professional growth. This interplay illustrates the integral role self-esteem plays in forming coherent and adaptive temporal perspectives.

C Cognition / Thinking and Mind

Memory structures and processes play a vital role in how individuals perceive and engage with the past, present, and future. Episodic memory, housed primarily in the hippocampus, enables the recall of personal past experiences and the organization of these memories into coherent narratives. This ability to reconstruct past events is essential for self-identity and informs our understanding of present contexts (Tulving, 2002). Additionally, working memory, associated with the prefrontal cortex, is instrumental in processing immediate information and making decisions based on past experiences. Together, these memory systems provide a framework that allows us to contextualize the present moment within our personal history.

Furthermore, the relationship between memory and future-oriented thinking is grounded in the concept of mental time travel. Research shows that the same brain regions involved in episodic memory—particularly the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex—are also active during prospection, or imagining future scenarios (Schacter et al., 2012). This suggests that our ability to envision the future relies on recombining past memories into new, hypothetical events. Such mental simulations aid in planning, goal-setting, and adaptive decision-making. The interplay between these memory processes highlights how temporal perspectives are inherently connected, allowing humans to seamlessly navigate time.


Under high cognitive load, people perceive time differently depending on whether they are aware they need to judge time (prospective) or not (retrospective). Prospective judgments tend to shorten perceived time, while retrospective judgments lengthen it (Block et al., 2010).



O Observable Behavior / Personality 

Personality traits and behavior patterns significantly influence individuals' temporal perspectives, shaping how they engage with the past, present, and future. For instance, people high in neuroticism often exhibit a negative bias toward the past, as they tend to ruminate on unpleasant experiences. Conversely, individuals with high extraversion and openness are more likely to view the past positively, use it as a source of personal growth, and maintain an optimistic orientation toward the future (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Present-focused individuals, often associated with impulsivity or sensation-seeking behaviors, may prioritize immediate rewards over long-term goals, highlighting the relationship between personality traits like impulsiveness and temporal decision-making.

Future-oriented behavior is closely linked to conscientiousness, which reflects traits like self-discipline and goal-directed planning. Studies suggest that individuals high in conscientiousness are more likely to adopt a future-focused perspective, leveraging their ability to delay gratification to achieve long-term success (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Temporal perspectives also intersect with behavior patterns, as positive future orientation has been associated with proactive coping strategies and resilience (Boniwell & Zimbardo, 2004).



People with impulsive behavior tendencies perceive time as more costly, leading them to overestimate durations and undervalue delayed rewards (Wittmann & Paulus (2008).



P Physical / biological

The perception of time is a complex interplay of cognitive processes and brain regions. The prefrontal cortex plays a central role in time-related tasks such as planning and decision-making, while the basal ganglia and cerebellum are involved in motor timing and interval perception. Studies suggest that the hippocampus contributes to temporal memory and the organization of events in time (Suddendorf & Corballis, 2007). Additionally, the insular cortex has been linked to the subjective experience of time, such as how we perceive its passage under different emotional states (Craig, 2009). These processes are influenced by neurotransmitters like dopamine, which appears critical in the reward-based timing of events (Meck, 2005).


E Emotional / Feelings and Mood

Emotional arousal and valence (positive or negative emotions) can speed up or slow down our internal clock, altering how we perceive time. For instance, time seems to "fly" during enjoyable moments and "drag" during unpleasant ones. The study used internal-clock models to explain these effects (Droit-Volet & Meck, 2007).


As people age, they often remember past events with a more positive hue. According to socioemotional selectivity theory (Carstensen, Fung, & Charles, 2003), this shift occurs because older adults prioritize emotional well-being. They tend to downplay negative memories and emphasize those that bring positive feelings, helping to maintain a coherent and satisfying self-narrative.



S Social Context / Space and Time

Our social environment, including cultural norms and shared rituals, shapes our attitude toward time. In settings where schedules and punctuality are strictly observed, time may feel rigid and segmented. Conversely, in cultures with a more fluid approach to time, individuals might experience a greater sense of relaxed or “elastic” time Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999).

Environmental complexity and the density of sensory information have been shown to influence how we allocate attention and encode time. For example, high cognitive load or rapid shifts in sensory stimuli can alter time perception, making intervals feel longer or shorter (Block et al., 2010).

The amount and quality of light—and more generally, environmental cues like natural day–night cycles—play a crucial role in regulating our internal clocks. These factors influence our circadian rhythms, which in turn affect alertness and the subjective flow of time Reppert & Weaver, 2002).



RELATED POSTS

SCOPES model




Post Author

Geoffrey W. Sutton, Professor Emeritus of Psychology at Evangel University, holds a master’s degree in counseling and a PhD in psychology from the University of Missouri-Columbia. His postdoctoral work encompassed education and supervision in forensic and neuropsychology. As a licensed psychologist, he conducted clinical and neuropsychological evaluations and provided psychotherapy for patients in various settings, including schools, hospitals, and private offices. During his tenure as a professor, Dr. Sutton taught courses on psychotherapy, assessment, and research. He has authored over one hundred publications, including books, book chapters, and articles in peer-reviewed psychology journals. His website is https://suttong.com


ResearchGate articles

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REFERENCES and RESOURCES


Block, R. A., Hancock, P. A., & Zakay, D. (2010). How cognitive load affects duration judgments: A meta-analytic review. Acta Psychologica, 134(3), 330–343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2010.03.006

Blakemore, S. J., & Choudhury, S. (2006). Development of the adolescent brain: Implications for executive function and social cognition. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(3–4), 296–312. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01611.x

Boniwell, I., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2004). Balancing time perspective in pursuit of optimal functioning. Positive Psychology in Practice, 165–180. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470939338.ch10

Carstensen, L. L., Fung, H. H., & Charles, S. T. (2003). Socioemotional selectivity theory and the regulation of emotion in the second half of life. Motivation and Emotion, 27(2), 103–123. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023689602589

Casey, B. J., Jones, R. M., & Hare, T. A. (2008). The adolescent brain. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1124(1), 111–126. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1440.010

Craig, A. D. (2009). How do you feel—Now? The anterior insula and human awareness. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10(1), 59-70. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2555

Droit-Volet, S., & Meck, W. H. (2007). How emotions color our perception of time. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11(12), 504–513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2007.09.008


Lyubomirsky, S., Tkach, C., & DiMatteo, M. R. (2006). What are the differences between happiness and self-esteem? Social Indicators Research, 78(3), 363–404. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-005-0213-yMcAdams, D. P. (2001). The psychology of life stories. Review of General Psychology, 5(2), 100–122. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.5.2.100

Meck, W. H. (2005). Neuropsychology of timing and time perception. Brain and Cognition, 58(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2004.09.004

Orth, U., Robins, R. W., & Widaman, K. F. (2012). Life-span development of self-esteem and its effects on important life outcomes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(6), 1271–1288. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025558

Reppert, S. M., & Weaver, D. R. (2002). Coordination of circadian timing in mammals. Nature, 418(6901), 935–941. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01091

Rubin, D. C., Wetzler, S. E., & Nebes, R. D. (1986). Autobiographical memory across the life span. Psychology and Aging, 1(2), 299–308.

Schacter, D. L., Addis, D. R., & Buckner, R. L. (2012). Remembering the past to imagine the future: The prospective brain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 8(9), 657-661. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2213

Steinberg, L. (2005). Cognitive and affective development in adolescence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(2), 69–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2004.12.005

Steinberg, L., & Monahan, K. C. (2007). Age differences in future orientation and delay discounting. Child Development, 78(1), 28–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.00974.x

Strathman, A., Gleicher, F., Boninger, D. S., & Edwards, C. S. (1994). The consideration of future consequences: Weighing immediate and distant outcomes of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(4), 742–752. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.66.4.742

Suddendorf, T., & Corballis, M. C. (2007). The evolution of foresight: What is mental time travel, and is it unique to humans? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 30(3), 299-351. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X07001975

Sutton, G. W. (2021). Creating surveys: Second Edition: How to create and administer surveys, evaluate workshops & seminars, interpret and present results. Sunflower.  Paperback ISBN-13:  9798712780327   

Tulving, E. (2002). Episodic memory: From mind to brain. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(1), 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135114

Wittmann, M., & Paulus, M. P. (2008). Decision making, impulsivity, and time perception. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12(1), 7–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2007.10.004

Zacks, J. M., Speer, N. K., Swallow, K. M., Braver, T. S., & Reynolds, J. R. (2007). Event perception: A mind–brain perspective. Psychological Bulletin, 133(2), 273–293. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.2.273

Zimbardo, P. G., & Boyd, J. N. (1999). Putting time in perspective: A valid, reliable individual-differences metric. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6), 1271–1288. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1271


Tuesday, March 18, 2025

Psychology of Restoration Following and Offense

 


Psychology of Restoration Following an Offense

Restoration in this context refers to the process of restoring people who have lost their status or position because of an egregious offense such as sexual harassment, physical or sexual abuse, theft, or some other serious violation of trust.

Following an interpersonal offense, the offended person or group may engage in the process of forgiveness and consider reconciliation; however, in some cases, other parties are involved before offenders are partially or fully restored to their previous status (Sutton & Thomas, 2005).

Depending on the offense and the offender's compliance with a specified restoration plan, the offender may be partially or fully restored to their previous status.

For example, a licensure board may suspend a professional license for a type of offense and require offenders to undergo rehabilitation before their professional status is restored. Concomitantly, the offended persons may or may not forgive the offender and if they had a pre-offense relationship, they may or may not wish to reconcile with the offender. The decision-makers (e.g., board members) may still decide to restore the person who has completed the specified restoration plan regardless of the actions of the persons who were offended.

Research

In research with various colleagues, we examined factors related to the restoration of clergy following a moral failure. We considered factors such as the type of offense, sex, and age of the offender. We also considered the role of an apology. Following are a few key findings regarding restoration.

Experienced clergy were more likely to restore a younger clergyman following an affair than a middle-aged pastor (Sutton & Thomas, 2005).

Study participants rated restoration higher for offending pastors of the opposite sex (Sutton et al., 2007).

Following a pastor's sexual offense, men were more restoring than were women (Thomas et al., 2008).

Following a pastor's affair, restoration was highest during a group discussion and the presence of a self-interest factor (Pop et al., 2009).

Two measures of restoration yielded adequate reliability and validity values (Sutton & Jordan, 2013).

For good reason, ethics and professional boards remove those leaders who have committed a serious offense such as the sexual abuse of those under their supervision or care or, in the case of clergy, the abuse of a congregant. Too many stories reveal the harm done when a predator, despite repentance, has gone on to abuse others when forgiven and relocated to a similar position. Hence, the importance of a careful evaluation of the offender and the development of a restoration plan grounded in accountability with opportunities to rebuild trust.

In the studies referenced below, we also considered the related concept of forgiveness.


Restoration References and Resources

Pop, J. L., Sutton, G.W., & Jones, E.G. (2009). Restoring pastors following a moral failure: The effects of self-interest and group influence, Pastoral Psychology, 57, 275-284.  

Sutton, G. W. (2010). The Psychology of Forgiveness, Reconciliation, and Restoration: Integrating Traditional and Pentecostal Theological Perspectives with Psychology. In M. Mittelstadt & G. W. Sutton (eds). Forgiveness, reconciliation, and restoration: Multidisciplinary studies from a Pentecostal perspective. Pickwick Publications.

Sutton, G. W. & Jordan, K. (2013). Evaluating attitudes toward clergy restoration: The psychometric properties of two scales. Pastoral Psychology. doi 10.1007/s11089-013-0527-7 Published online 16 March 2013.

Sutton, G. W., McLeland, K. C., Weaks, K. Cogswell, P. E., & Miphouvieng, R. N. (2007). Does gender matter? An exploration of gender, spirituality, forgiveness and restoration following pastor transgressions. Pastoral Psychology. 55, 645-663. doi 10.1007/s11089-007-0072-3 

Sutton, G.W., & Thomas, E. K. (2005). Can derailed pastors be restored? Effects of offense and age on restoration. Pastoral Psychology, 53, 583-599.

Sutton, G. W., & Thomas, E. K. (2009). Following derailed clergy: A message of healing for a shocked congregation. Enrichment Journal  

Sutton, G. W., & Thomas, E. K. (2005). Restoring Christian leaders: How conceptualizations of forgiveness and restoration can influence practice and research. American Journal of Pastoral Counseling, 8, 29-44.

Thomas, E. K., & Sutton, G.W. (2008). Religious leadership failure: Forgiveness, apology, and restitution. Journal of Spirituality in Mental Health, 10, 308-327. 

Thomas, E. K., White, K., & Sutton, G.W. (2008). Religious leadership failure: Apology, responsibility-taking, gender, forgiveness, and restoration. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 27, 16-29.  




Post Author

Geoffrey W. Sutton, Professor Emeritus of Psychology at Evangel University, holds a master’s degree in counseling and a PhD in psychology from the University of Missouri-Columbia. His postdoctoral work encompassed education and supervision in forensic and neuropsychology. As a licensed psychologist, he conducted clinical and neuropsychological evaluations and provided psychotherapy for patients in various settings, including schools, hospitals, and private offices. During his tenure as a professor, Dr. Sutton taught courses on psychotherapy, assessment, and research. He has authored over one hundred publications, including books, book chapters, and articles in peer-reviewed psychology journals. His website is https://suttong.com


ResearchGate articles

Amazon Author Page

Google Author Page

Facebook Author Page

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Monday, March 17, 2025

Psychology of Reconciliation






Reconciliation is a new state of closeness that exists between or among people who were separated because of a transgression committed by one or more of those persons. The state is characterized by prosocial behaviors. Some of the people have likely experienced positive intrapersonal change in the forgiving process. (Sutton & Thomas, 2005, p. 35)

Reconciling is a process of building a relationship between or among people following a transgression that caused a disruption. Reconciling includes various verbal and nonverbal
behavior patterns that suggest no significant transgression will recur. (Sutton & Thomas, 2005, pp. 35-36)

Reconciling is distinct from forgiveness. Forgiveness may be a catalyst that facilitates the process of forgiveness. Forgiveness in psychology is an intrapersonal process whereas reconciliation is necessarily an interpersonal process.

Restoration of an offender does not require either forgiveness or reconciliation. In the context of a person who has committed a serious offense, restoration is a separate concept focused on restoring the offender to a previous status lost due to the offense (e.g., a job, a group membership, a certification or licensure). The restoration need not include forgiveness by the person they offended nor does it require reconciliation between the offender and the person who was offended.

At the heart of reconciliation is an effort to rebuild a broken relationship, which requires trust.

*****

Worthington's Model of Reconciliation


Everett Worthington's reconciliation model emphasizes the process of rebuilding trust and repairing relationships after conflict or harm. It is closely tied to his work on forgiveness and is often presented alongside his REACH Forgiveness model. Worthington outlines a four-step Bridge to Reconciliation, which includes:

  Deciding to reconcile: Both parties must express a willingness to restore the relationship.

  Discussing the conflict: Open and honest communication about the harm caused is essential.

  Detoxifying the relationship: This involves addressing negative emotions and fostering empathy.

  Developing trust: Gradually rebuilding trust through consistent and positive interactions.

Schnabel & Nadler (2008) Needs-Based Model of Reconciliation

This model emphasizes the socio-emotional aspects of reconciliation, focusing on the psychological needs of both victims and perpetrators in post-conflict situations. According to the model:

Victims often experience a loss of power and control due to the harm inflicted upon them. They have a psychological need to restore their sense of empowerment.

Perpetrators, on the other hand, may feel a threat to their moral identity. They have a need to restore their moral image and be reintegrated into the moral community.

The model suggests that reconciliation occurs when these needs are addressed and fulfilled. For example, victims may feel empowered through acknowledgment of their suffering or receiving an apology, while perpetrators may restore their moral image by expressing genuine remorse and seeking forgiveness.

*****


References

Sutton, G. W., & Thomas, E. K. (2005). Restoring Christian leaders: How conceptualizations of forgiveness and restoration can influence practice and research. American Journal of Pastoral Counseling, 8, 29-44. 

Worthington, E. L., Jr. (2006). Forgiveness and reconciliation: Theory and application. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203942734




Post Author

Geoffrey W. Sutton, Professor Emeritus of Psychology at Evangel University, holds a master’s degree in counseling and a PhD in psychology from the University of Missouri-Columbia. His postdoctoral work encompassed education and supervision in forensic and neuropsychology. As a licensed psychologist, he conducted clinical and neuropsychological evaluations and provided psychotherapy for patients in various settings, including schools, hospitals, and private offices. During his tenure as a professor, Dr. Sutton taught courses on psychotherapy, assessment, and research. He has authored over one hundred publications, including books, book chapters, and articles in peer-reviewed psychology journals. His website is https://suttong.com


ResearchGate articles

Amazon Author Page

Google Author Page

Facebook Author Page

*****

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Forgiveness Quotes

Forgive? Yes. Reconcile? Maybe.

Forgiveness and Psychotherapy

Sexual Harassment, Apologies, Forgiveness, and Restoration

Self-Forgiveness

Psychology of Forgiveness and Spirituality

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