Sleeper effect in psychology

 

The sleeper effect is a psychological phenomenon that refers to a delayed increase in the effect of a persuasive message that is accompanied by a discounting cue. A discounting cue is a piece of information that suggests that the message is not to be taken seriously. For example, if a message is presented by a low-credibility source, or if it is accompanied by a counterargument, the message may be less persuasive initially. However, over time, people may forget the discounting cue and become more persuaded by the message.

The sleeper effect was first discovered by Carl Hovland and Walter Weiss in 1951. They conducted a study in which they presented participants with persuasive messages that were either accompanied by a discounting cue or not. They found that the messages that were accompanied by a discounting cue were less persuasive initially, but that this effect disappeared over time.

The sleeper effect has a number of implications for persuasion. It suggests that persuasive messages may be more effective if they are presented in a way that makes the discounting cue less salient. For example, if a message is presented by a low-credibility source, the source's credibility could be downplayed. Additionally, the sleeper effect suggests that persuasive messages may be more effective if they are repeated over time.

The sleeper effect has been used to describe continued growth following the completion of psychotherapy. Researchers have debated which therapies may be better than others regarding improvement  or growth following psychological interventions. See Podina et al. (2019) for an analysis of therapies and the sleeper effect for the treatment of anxiety disorders.

 

References

Foos, A., Keeling, K. & Keeling, D. I. (2016) Redressing the sleeper effect: evidence for the favorable persuasive impact of discounting information over time in a contemporary advertising context. Journal of Advertising Research, 45 (1). pp. 19-25. ISSN 0021- 8499

Kleinnijenhuis, J. (2020). Sleeper Effect. In The International Encyclopedia of Media Psychology, J. Bulck (Ed.). https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119011071.iemp0147

Podina, I. R., Vîslă, A., Fodor, L. A., & Flückiger, C. (2019). Is there a sleeper effect of exposure-based vs. cognitive-only intervention for anxiety disorders? A longitudinal multilevel meta-analysis. Clinical psychology review, 73, 101774. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2019.101774

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

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Martha Mitchell effect in psychology

 The Martha Mitchell effect is a mistaken interpretation that a person's belief is a delusion. 

The effect was mentioned by English-American psychologist Brendan Arnold Maher in the book,  Delusional Beliefs (1988). Maher was a Harvard University psychology professor.

The name of the effect refers to Martha Beall Mitchell who accused the US administration of using her husband, US Attorney General John Mitchell, as a scapegoat to protect President Nixon during the time of the Watergate scandal. Her belief was justified despite being regarded as delusional.

Although Martha Mitchell received mental health treatment, the use of a mental health diagnosis to discredit her perspective on events should serve as a warning to mental health professionals, journalists, and anyone learning about a diagnosis used to slander or discredit someone's opinion. The actions

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Related posts

Delusion

Gaslighting

Reference

Oltmanns, T. F., & Maher, B. A. (Eds.). (1988). Delusional beliefs. John Wiley & Sons.

Related information

Documentary

The Martha Mitchell Effect is also a documentary available on Netflix. The actions against Martha Mitchell are an example of gaslighting.

The psychologist behind the effect.

Brendan Maher was a highly respected psychologist born in Lancashire, England 31 October 1924. He served with the Royal Navy in Word War II. He wrote about his D-Day experience in addition to many scholarly works. He died 17 March 2009.

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Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

See Geoffrey Sutton’s books on   AMAZON       or  GOOGLE STORE

Follow on    FACEBOOK   Geoff W. Sutton    

   TWITTER  @Geoff.W.Sutton    

You can read many published articles at no charge:

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Dr. Sutton’s posts are for educational purposes only. See a licensed mental health provider for diagnoses, treatment, and consultation.

Anger Superiority Effect in Psychology

 

The anger superiority effect is a psychological phenomenon in which threatening faces are more easily detected in a crowd than are nonthreatening faces.

In a visual search tasks, Fox and others (2010) found people detected angry faces more quickly than happy faces.

Gong and Smart (2020) suggested that other faces in a crowd might influence the effect.

Reference

1. Elaine Fox, Victoria Lester, Riccardo Russo, R.J. Bowles, Alessio Pichler & Kevin Dutton (2000) Facial Expressions of Emotion: Are Angry Faces Detected More Efficiently?, Cognition and Emotion, 14:1, 61-92, DOI: 10.1080/026999300378996
2. Mingliang Gong & L. James Smart (2021) The anger superiority effect revisited: a visual crowding task, Cognition and Emotion, 35:2, 214-224, DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2020.1818552

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

See Geoffrey Sutton’s books on   AMAZON       or  GOOGLE STORE

Follow on    FACEBOOK   Geoff W. Sutton    

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You can read many published articles at no charge:

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Dr. Sutton’s posts are for educational purposes only. See a licensed mental health provider for diagnoses, treatment, and consultation.

 

 

Image- NPS exhibit of desegregation: photo of Elizabeth Ann Eckford on her way to enter Little Rock High School in 1957. An angry face in the crowd led to stories about the event.

Picture Superiority Effect in Psychology

 

The picture superiority effect  is a psychological phenomenon in which pictures and images are more likely to be remembered than are words. This effect has been demonstrated in numerous experiments using different methods.

“The picture superiority effect has been well documented in tests of item recognition and recall. The present study shows that the picture superiority effect extends to associative recognition.” (Hockley, 2008)

 

Reference

Hockley, W.E. The picture superiority effect in associative recognition. Memory & Cognition 36, 1351–1359 (2008). https://doi.org/10.3758/MC.36.7.1351

Image: Beach from Portland Castle by Geoffrey W. Sutton 2022.

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

See Geoffrey Sutton’s books on   AMAZON       or  GOOGLE STORE

Follow on    FACEBOOK   Geoff W. Sutton    

   TWITTER  @Geoff.W.Sutton    

You can read many published articles at no charge:

  Academia   Geoff W Sutton     ResearchGate   Geoffrey W Sutton 

 

Dr. Sutton’s posts are for educational purposes only. See a licensed mental health provider for diagnoses, treatment, and consultation.

Face Superiority Effect in Psychology

 

The face superiority effect refers to the way people perceive and remember faces. Instead of  perceiving and encoding the features of a face (e.g., ears, nose, eyes, mouth), we perceive and encode a human face as one holistic unit.

From Tanaka and Simonyi (2016)

It has been claimed that faces are recognized as a “whole” rather than the recognition of individual parts. In a paper published in the Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology in 1993, Martha Farah and I attempted to operationalize the holistic claim using the part/whole task. In this task, participants studied a face and then their memory presented in isolation and in the whole face. Consistent with the holistic view, recognition of the part was superior when tested in the whole-face condition compared to when it was tested in isolation. The “whole face” or holistic advantage was not found for faces that were inverted, or scrambled, nor for non-face objects suggesting that holistic encoding was specific to normal, intact faces.

Reference

Tanaka, J. W., & Simonyi, D. (2016). The "parts and wholes" of face recognition: A review of the literature. Quarterly journal of experimental psychology (2006), 69(10), 1876–1889. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2016.1146780

Image credit: Created by Geoffrey W. Sutton with DALL.E2 in 2023

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

See Geoffrey Sutton’s books on   AMAZON       or  GOOGLE STORE

Follow on    FACEBOOK   Geoff W. Sutton    

   TWITTER  @Geoff.W.Sutton    

You can read many published articles at no charge:

  Academia   Geoff W Sutton     ResearchGate   Geoffrey W Sutton 

 

Dr. Sutton’s posts are for educational purposes only. See a licensed mental health provider for diagnoses, treatment, and consultation.

Diderot effect in psychology

 

The Diderot effect is a social psychology phenomenon that occurs when obtaining a new possession leads to a spiral of consumption, ultimately resulting in a change of a person's values and beliefs. The effect is named after the 18th-century French philosopher, Denis Diderot, who first described the phenomenon in an essay titled "Regrets on Parting with My Old Dressing Gown."

According to Diderot, after receiving a new, elegant dressing gown as a gift, he found that it made his other possessions look shabby in comparison. He then proceeded to buy new furniture, wall hangings, and other items to match the perceived elegance of his new dressing gown, which led to a change in his overall lifestyle and values.

In contemporary research, the Diderot effect has been studied in various contexts, including consumer behavior and social comparison. Research has shown that the acquisition of a new possession can lead to a feeling of incompleteness and dissatisfaction, which in turn can drive further consumption in an attempt to fill that void. This can create a cycle of consumption that can be difficult to break.

Critics of the Diderot effect have argued that it is not a universal phenomenon and that its effects may be influenced by individual differences and cultural factors. Additionally, some researchers have suggested that the effect may only occur under certain conditions, such as when the new possession is seen as a symbol of a desired identity or when the individual is experiencing a significant life change.

Overall, the Diderot effect is an intriguing phenomenon that highlights the complex relationships between possessions, identity, and consumption. Further research is needed to fully understand the conditions under which it occurs and how it can be managed to promote more sustainable consumption behavior.

 

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

See Geoffrey Sutton’s books on   AMAZON       or  GOOGLE STORE

Follow on    FACEBOOK   Geoff W. Sutton    

   TWITTER  @Geoff.W.Sutton    

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Dr. Sutton’s posts are for educational purposes only. See a licensed mental health provider for diagnoses, treatment, and consultation.

 

Cinderella effect in psychology

The Cinderella effect in psychology refers to the phenomenon in which stepparents are more likely to engage in abuse towards their stepchildren than biological parents. 

This concept was coined by Martin Daly and Margo Wilson in 1994, drawing inspiration from the fairy tale of Cinderella, in which a stepmother mistreats her stepdaughter. According to the theory, stepparents are more likely to mistreat their stepchildren because they are not biologically related to them and do not have the same emotional connection to them as biological parents. This lack of connection can lead to less investment in the child's well-being and increased feelings of jealousy towards the child's biological parent.

Critics of the Cinderella effect theory argue that the evidence is not strong enough to support such a broad conclusion, pointing out that there are many factors that can contribute to child abuse, including poverty, stress, and mental illness. Additionally, critics argue that the theory ignores the fact that many stepparents have positive relationships with their stepchildren and that many biological parents are also capable of abuse. See a critique by David Buller (2005).

Daly and Wilson (2008) offer a careful explanation of the research supporting the Cinderella Effect and a detailed response to Buller and other critics. Following is a quote from their 2008 chapter (p. 383).

Skepticism is useful faculty for any scientist, and one that the social sciences afford their practitioners abundant opportunities to exercise. However, the work of evolutionary psychologists has elicited more than its share of skepticism, for reasons that seem to have little to do with the quality of either the theorizing that motivated the researchers' hypotheses or their evidence. An example is provided by critical reactions to our own research on the "Cinderella effect." The phenomenon at issue is parental discrimination against stepchildren, relative to how parents treat their birth children. It is manifest both in reduced levels of investment in stepchildren and in elevated rates of mistreatment, up to the extreme of lethal abuse. Given the ubiquity of abused stepchildren in folklore and the pervasive negative stereotyping of stepparents (e.g., Fine, 1986), any child-abuse researcher might have wondered whether steprelationship is genuine risk factor, but in fact, those whose imaginations were uninformed by Darwinism never thought to ask. We conducted the first comparison of abuse rates in stepfamilies versus intact birth families, and the difference turned out to be large (Wilson, Daly, Weghorst, 1980).

The evidence of high rates of abuse of nonbiological children compared to abuse of biological children is alarming and worth considering proximal and distal causes for the data. Certainly, one should not ignore contributing factors and what may be done to insure safer environments for children. Although it is reasonable to be sceptical of the evidence, it should not be ignored. Instead, more data should be collected in accordance with rigorous guidelines.

Readers should also be careful to separate criticism of the data from criticism of the theories attempting to explain the data. Theory building is an ongoing process informed by data. Cognitive biases can interfere with a fair analysis of any theory.

References

Buller, D. J. (2005). Adapting minds: Evolutionary psychology and the persistent quest for human nature. MIT Press.

Daly, M., & Wilson, M. (1994). Evolutionary social psychology and family homicide. Science, 267(5197), 249-252.

Daly, M., & Wilson, M. (2008). Is the "Cinderella effect" controversial?: A case study of evolution-minded research and critiques thereof. In C. Crawford & D. Krebs (Eds.), Foundations of evolutionary psychology (pp. 383–400). Taylor & Francis Group/Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Wilson, M., & Daly, M. (2001). Risk of maltreatment of children living with stepparents. In D. P. Farrington & J. W. Coid (Eds.), Early prevention of adult antisocial behaviour (pp. 178-197). Cambridge University Press.

cheerleader effect in psychology

The cheerleader effect is a phenomenon in which people tend to appear more attractive when they are in a group rather than when they are viewed individually. This effect is thought to occur because people tend to focus on the group as a whole rather than on each individual person. This leads to a perception that the group is more attractive than its individual members.

The term "cheerleader effect" was coined by the character Barney Stinson in the television show "How I Met Your Mother," but the concept has been studied in psychology. A study by Walker and Vul (2013) found that people tend to rate faces as more attractive when they are presented in a group rather than alone. The authors suggest that this effect may be due to a cognitive mechanism that simplifies the visual processing of groups of people.

Reference

Walker, M., & Vul, E. (2013). Hierarchical encoding makes individuals in a group appear more attractive. Psychological science, 24(11), 2306-2315. doi:10.1177/0956797613497960

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

See Geoffrey Sutton’s books on   AMAZON       or  GOOGLE STORE

Follow on    FACEBOOK   Geoff W. Sutton    

   TWITTER  @Geoff.W.Sutton    

You can read many published articles at no charge:

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Dr. Sutton’s posts are for educational purposes only. See a licensed mental health provider for diagnoses, treatment, and consultation.

 

boomerang effect in psychology

The boomerang effect in psychology refers to a phenomenon where attempts to persuade individuals to change their attitudes or behaviors can sometimes lead to the opposite effect, resulting in a reinforcement of the original beliefs or behaviors. This effect can occur when the persuasive message is perceived as threatening to the individual's sense of freedom or autonomy, leading to reactance and a defensive response that strengthens the original behavior or belief.

For example, a study found that anti-smoking campaigns that used graphic and fear-based messages resulted in some smokers actually increasing their smoking behavior, as they felt their freedom of choice was being threatened (Miller & Prentice, 2016).

Parents and teachers may observe this effect when trying to change a child's behavior. Other strategies may be more effective.

Reference

Miller, C. H., & Prentice, D. A. (2016). Changing norms to change behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 67, 339-361. doi: 10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015013

A book offering different strategies may be helpful for parents and educators.

Discipline With Respect  on AMAZON and elsewhere.

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

See Geoffrey Sutton’s books on   AMAZON       or  GOOGLE STORE

Follow on    FACEBOOK   Geoff W. Sutton    

   TWITTER  @Geoff.W.Sutton    

You can read many published articles at no charge:

  Academia   Geoff W Sutton     ResearchGate   Geoffrey W Sutton 

 

Dr. Sutton’s posts are for educational purposes only. See a licensed mental health provider for diagnoses, treatment, and consultation.

 

birthday-number effect in psychology

The birthday-number effect is a psychological phenomenon where people tend to choose or indicate a preference for numbers that are associated with their birthdays or birth months when selecting numbers in various contexts. This effect has been observed in many different countries and cultures.

A Japanese study by Kitayama and Karasawa (1997) found a preference for numbers related to one's birthday and birth month. Nickell et al. (2003) found a positive evaluation of one's birth month and year.

The birthday-number effect has been attributed to several factors, including the salience of one's birthdate or birth month, the familiarity of these numbers, and the belief in the significance of these numbers. However, it is important to note that the effect is largely driven by personal choice and preference, rather than any objective influence of one's birthdate or birth month on the outcome of the task.

Overall, the birthday-number effect highlights the influence of personal factors on decision-making and the importance of understanding the biases that can affect our choices.

References

Kitayama, S., & Karasawa, M. (1997). Implicit Self-Esteem in Japan: Name Letters and Birthday Numbers. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23(7), 736–742. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167297237006 

Nickell, G., Pederson, K., & Rossow, C. (2003). The Birthdate Effect: An Extension of the Mere Ownership Effect. Psychological Reports, 92(1), 161–163. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.2003.92.1.161

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

See Geoffrey Sutton’s books on   AMAZON       or  GOOGLE STORE

Follow on    FACEBOOK   Geoff W. Sutton    

   TWITTER  @Geoff.W.Sutton    

You can read many published articles at no charge:

  Academia   Geoff W Sutton     ResearchGate   Geoffrey W Sutton 

 

Dr. Sutton’s posts are for educational purposes only. See a licensed mental health provider for diagnoses, treatment, and consultation.

 

Barnum effect in psychology

 

The Barnum effect is a psychological phenomenon that occurs when people believe that vague and general descriptions of their personality, character, or life experiences are uniquely tailored to them, even though they are actually applicable to a wide range of people. It is also known as the Forer effect, named after psychologist Bertram Forer who first demonstrated it in the 1940s.

One classic study by Forer (1949) demonstrated the Barnum effect by having his students complete a personality test, and then gave them a supposedly individualized description of their personality that was actually a mix of generic statements that could apply to almost anyone. The results showed that the students rated the description as highly accurate and applicable to their own personality, despite the fact that the description was not unique to them.

The Barnum effect has been demonstrated in a variety of contexts, including astrology, horoscopes, and psychic readings. It is thought to be related to cognitive biases such as confirmation bias, where people seek out information that confirms their existing beliefs or expectations.

Overall, the Barnum effect highlights the tendency for people to find meaning in vague and general statements, and the importance of critical thinking and skepticism when evaluating information about oneself.

References

Forer, B. R. (1949). The fallacy of personal validation: A classroom demonstration of gullibility. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 44(1), 118-123. doi: 10.1037/h0059240

Nickerson, R. S. (1998). Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises. Review of General Psychology, 2(2), 175-220. doi: 10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175

Geoffrey W. Sutton, PhD is Emeritus Professor of Psychology. He retired from a clinical practice and was credentialed in clinical neuropsychology and psychopharmacology. His website is  www.suttong.com

 

See Geoffrey Sutton’s books on   AMAZON       or  GOOGLE STORE

Follow on    FACEBOOK   Geoff W. Sutton    

   TWITTER  @Geoff.W.Sutton    

You can read many published articles at no charge:

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Dr. Sutton’s posts are for educational purposes only. See a licensed mental health provider for diagnoses, treatment, and consultation.